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COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA 
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 



7 ~- 

C. <^ ~s 



MANUAL FOR 
HIGH SCHOOLS 



Harrisburg, Fa., 

J. L. L. Kuhn, Printer to the Commonwealth 

1922 



COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA 
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 



STATE COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 

President and Chief Executive Officer 
Thomas E. Finegan 

Homer D. Williams, M. S Pittsburgh, Pa July 1, 1927 

Morris L. Clothier, LL. D Philadelphia, Pa. July 1, 1926 

Mrs. E. S. H. McCauley Si e ?, ve , r ', £*' o t U y i ' JSoS 

Mrs H. S. Prentiss Nichols Philadelphia, Pa. July 1, 1925 

Edgar Fahs Smith, MD., Sc. D., Ph. D., DV ,.j,. „ , . 1 100Q 

LL. D., L. H. D., Chem. D., Philadelphia, Pa. July 1, 1928 

Hon. E. S. Templeton S?* e ? vm t' P t?' ft& i* i q?! 

Hon. Marcus Aaron Pittsburgh, Pa. July 1, 1924 

Ernest Laplace, M. D., LL. D., Philadelphia, Pa. July 1, 1925 



EXECUTIVE OFFICERS 

Thomas E. Finegan, M. A., Ph. D., Litt. D., L H. D., LL. D 

Superintendent or Public Instruction 
J George Becht, M. A.; Sc.D., LL.D. Deputy Superintendent, Higher Education 
William D. Lewis, M.A., Pd.D. Litt.D. Deputy Superintendent, Secondary Education 

Albert W Johnson, B. A Assistant to Superintendent (School Law) 

Helen J. Ostrander Secretary to Superintendent 



DIRECTORS OF BUREAUS 

Administration, Francis B. Haas, B. S., M. A. 

Attendance, W. M. Denison, M. A. 

Health Education \ Charles H. Keene, M. D. 

Pre-Professional and Professional Credentials, . . CD. Koch, M.A., Pd. D., Litt. D. 

Rural Education, Lee L. Driver, M. A., LL. D. 

School Buildings HuBert Clark Eicher, M. S. 

School Employes* Retirement, H. H. Baish, M. A. 

Special Education Francis N. Maxfield, Ph. D. 

Teacher, Albert L. Rowland, M. A., Ph. D. 

Vocational, L- H. Dennis, B. S. 



DIRECTORS OF SUBJECTS 

Art Education, C. Valentine Kirby, M. A. 

Commercial Education, Vacancy 

English, Orton Lowe, B. S. 

Foreign Languages, G. C. L. Riemer, M. A., Ph. D. 

Geography, Erna Grassmuck, B. S. in Ed. 

1 nspection of High Schools, James G. Pentz, B. A., M. A. 

Junior High Schools, James M. Glass, B. A., M. A. 

Mathematics, J. A. Foberg, B. S. 

Music, Hollis Dann, Mus. D. 

School Libraries, Adeline B. Zachert 

Science, James N. Rule, B. S., M. S. 

Social Studies J. Lynn Barnard, B. S., Ph. D. 

Speech Improvement, Helen M. Peppard, B. A. 



COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA 
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 



MANUAL FOR 
HIGH SCHOOLS 



Harrishurg, Pa., 

J. L. L. Kuhn, Printer to the Commonwealth 

1922 






MANUAL FOR 
HIGH SCHOOLS 

"The first aim of education is to teach people to do better 
the desirable things they are going to do anyway. Another 
duty is to reveal higher types of activities and to make them 
both desired and to an extent possible. " 

THOMAS H. BRIGGS. 



>tt*wtf> ! 

JAN 15 1903 j 

OOCUMCNTs i* v > . 



CONTENTS 

I. Introduction 7 

IT. Secondary Education in the United St.it; s 9 

III. The Legal Status of the High School 11 

IV. Administration of the Program of Studies 2.") 

V. The Junior High School 53 

VI. Essentials of Secondary School Opportunities 71 

VII. Guidance in the High School 77 

VIII. Instruction 85 

IX. Student and Faculty Activities 95 

X. Relations with Lower and Higher Schools 117 

XI. Practical Arts and Vocational Education 125 

Bibliography 141 



•.. . ■ *. . * . - « 



MANUAL FOR HIGH SCHOOLS 



MANUAL FOE HIGH SCHOOLS 
1. INTRODUCTION 

The program of the Department of Public Instruction for second- 
ary education has been developed from the following set of resolu- 
tions passed by the first education congress of Pennsylvania in No- 
vember 19th and endorsed by the high school section of the Pennsyl- 
vania State Educational Association at its subsequent meeting in 
Philadelphia. 

1. That the junior high school be encouraged as a distinct in- 
stitution, designed to afford opportunity for try-out of various native 
abilities, for differentiation of opportunity, and for better educational 
guidance. 

2. That promotion by subject be the only method used in both the 
junior and senior high schools. 

3. That an effort be made to adapt the content of courses and 
methods of instruction to. the needs of pupils, to the end that the 
failure in a well-organized school, with properly supervised instruc- 
tion, should not. under normal conditions, exceed from five to ten 
per cent. 

4. That citizenship be taught through school administration by 
delegating to the pupils under watchful supervision certain functions 
of the school government. 

5. That instruction in citizenship be required in the junior and 
senior high school, and that ample time be provided for the require- 
ment of this course for every pupil in the school. 

6. That a definite program for educational and vocational guid- 
ance be included in the plan of every high school. 

7. That courses of study be organized with a view to the largest 
service to all students, ninety percent of whom do not go to college. 
That the colleges be urged to cooperate with the high schools by giving 
an opportunity for higher education to those Whom high school 
principals recommend as qualified to profit by college courses. 

8. That we approve of the report of the sub-committee of the 
Commission on Re-organization of Secondary Education, known as 
the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, and urge that princi- 
pals and superintendents keep in mind the seven fundamental objec- 
tives outlined in that report in organizing the courses of study. 



8 

9. That organized provision for regular training of all normal 
children of the ages of fourteen and upwards, adapting higih school 
procedure for the reception and retention of such children, and for 
offering them such profitable instruction as may attract and benefit 
them, be accepted as an obligation of regular high schools. 

10. That such administrative measures be adopted as will stand- 
ardize grading and promotion of high school students to the end 
that the promotion of pupils be based upon reasonably uniform at- 
tainments. 

.Ait every step in the development of the program representative 
educators of the State have been consulted. Fundamental principles, 
administrative measures, and details have been worked out by com- 
mitees and then submitted by the deputy superintendent in charge 
of secondary education and by the inspectors and directors working 
with him to meetings of high school principals and teachers in practi- 
cally every county of the State. The Department is endeavoring to 
develop a system of democratic education in a democratic way, and 
to that end it invites the frank criticism and suggestions of the 
educators of the State concerning all matters discussed in this hand- 
book. 



II. SECONDAKY EDUCATION IN THE UNTTED 

STATES 

The growth of public secondary education. The first public secon- 
dary school of the United States was the English Classical School 
of Boston, started in 1821. One hundred years from the date of 
establishment of this school, we find in our country a development 
of public secondary education entirely unique in the world's history. 
Approximately 17,000 public high schools with over 2,000,000 pupils 
taught by 80,000 teachers testify to the interest of the American 
people in secondary education. 

This unprecedented development has been largely the product of 
the last thirty years. During that time, the number of public high 
schools has increased 452 per cent. In large sections of the country, 
they are the only facilities for secondary education. In 1890, 68 
per cent of all secondary pupils were in the public high schools; in 
1918, this percentage had risen to 91.2 per cent. Even more startling 
is the increase in enrollment when compared with growth in total 
population. While population increased 68 per cent in these twenty- 
eight years, the number of high school pupils increased 710 per cent. 
Costs have increased out of proportion to these striking figures. 
Enrichment and variety of curriculums, innovations in administra- 
tion, and improvements in content and methods of instruction have 
so revolutionized this democratic institution that the founders of 
that Boston school a century ago would be as bewildered by its com- 
plexities as they would by the intricacies of a modern electrical plant. 
Evidently the American people believe in secondary education. 

Why this development. The reason for this unique and remark- 
able development is not difficult to find. The culmination of the 
industrial revolution has brought together here in America as leaders 
the descendants of that farmer stock that braved unknown dangers 
in search of religious freedom, individual achievement, and political 
and economic independence. Followers from among the hardiest and 
most venturesome of every country of civilized Europe have here 
sought like opportunities. Unparalleled natural resources exploited 
by an industrious and resourceful people aided by the increasingly 
efficient subjection of these natural resources to science and invention 
have developed the general comfort, the economic independence, and 
the educational interest of the people. Their improved economic re- 
sources have made it possible for more of the people to postpone 
through the secondary school period the necessity of financial con- 
tributions by their children. Educational advancement has not been 
hampered by governmental and social-class limitations. The natural 



10 

ambitions of parents for their children have, therefore, placed the 
full force of public opinion and sentiment behind the high school 
movement and made inevitable its remarkable growth. 

The problem before the American high school. It becomes a pro- 
blem for those officially responsible for the American high school to 
see to it that this individual purpose shall serve a social end, and 
that the school so built upon the consciousness and the affection of 
our people shall not only continue to provide individual opportunity, 
but that it shall also provide as a foundation for our democratic 
government and social order a large group of intelligent leaders 
and of discriminating followers who will place public welfare above 
private interest. 

The high school is ideally suited to this purpose. It has charge of 
our youth during the years of adolescence — the most impressionable 
period of their lives — the period When, above all others, they are 
forming their habits of thought and feeling in all their social relation- 
ships. It attracts the ambitious youth of the community, from 
whose number will come practically all of the doctors, lawyers, 
preachers, teachers, editors, publicists, and leading business men. It 
includes also representatives of every future vocation and of every 
future social, economic, and political group. It is an institution 
which readily arouses the social consciousness and enlists the per- 
sonal and group loyalty of its members. Its curriculum can include 
such study of man and of his social nature as will contribute to an 
intellectual understanding of the social laws that must control in- 
dividual and group relationships. Its community activities provide 
for the development of emotional sanity and of practical skill in the 
process of cooperative activity. 

In these fateful years of readjustment and reorganization, with the 
democratic leadership of the world on our shoulders, we must develop 
a mass wisdom, a mass consciousness, and a mass conscience equal 
to the task. Here are the leaders and the intelligent followers of 
tomorrow; here is an institution owned, financed, and directed in 
the public interest ; ours must be the wisdom to avoid confusion of 
aim and to give purposeful direction with a clear vision of the civili- 
zation that we must build. 



11 



III. LEGAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 

The School Code provides that the Department of Public Instruc- 
tion shall classify the various high schools as junior high schools, 
senior high schools, and first, second, and third grade high schools. 
The Department will be glad to assist schools desiring changes in 
classification to bring the conditions of the school into harmony 
with the requirements of the classification desired. 

Minimum requirements for the various grades of schools are as 
follows: 

1. For first grade high school or for senior high school. 

Three properly qualified teachers giving full time to high school work. 

Not less than nine months' term. 

Adequate building, supplies, and equipment. 

Instruction in a four-year curriculum approved by the Department of 

Public Instruction, or instruction in a curriculum for grades ten, eleven, 

ami twelve following an approved junior high school course. 

2. For a six-year high school. 

An organization of grades seven to twelve, which shall meet the require- 
ments for a junior high school in addition to those for a senior high school. 

3. For a second grade high school. 

Two properly qualified teachers giving full time to high school work. 

Not less than an eight months' term. 

Adequate building, supplies, and equipment. 

Instruction in a three-year curriculum approved by the Department of 

Public Instruction. 

4. For a third grade high school. 

One properly qualified teacher giving full time to high school work. 

Not less than an eight months' term. 

Adequate building, supplies, and equipment. 

Instruction in a two-year curriculum approved by the Department of 

Public Instruction. 

5. For a junior high school. 

Four properly qualified teachers giving full time to high school work. 
One hundred pupils in average daily attendance. 

Instruction in grades seven, eight, and nine. Grade ten may be added 
if approved. 

Adequate building, supplies, and equipment. 
Approved organization and curriculum. 

Temporary classification. When it is impossible to meet the re- 
gular conditions for classification, a school may be approved for 
temporary classification as a junior high school if conditions are 
such as to make a junior high school desirable. 

6. Junior high school, senior high school, elementary school. 

Section 1701 of the School Code provides that the term 
elementary school or elementary course shall apply to all 



12 

grades not included among those recognized as high school 
grades in the classihcation of the Department of Public 
Instruction. A high school is au organization of grades 
seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, and twelve, in cases where 
such grades or any of them are organized as a part of a 
junior high school, a senior high school, or a six-year high 
school, and are so recognized by the State Council of Educa- 
tion, but where such grades are not so organized, grades 
seven and eight shall be classified as elementary grades. A 
complete high school course is one requiring four years be- 
yond an elementary course of eight years or six years be- 
yond an elementary course of six years. The Superintend- 
ent of Public Instruction shall make such regulations as 
shall be necessary to insure proper standards for the various 
grades of the twelve years of the public school course. 

7. Determination of the class of a school. 

In addition to the provisions given above concerning the 
number of teachers, length of term, etc., the law provides 
in Section 1701 that the class to which a high school belongs 
shall be determined by its shortest course for graduation. 
In order to lie classified by the Department of Public In- 
struction a school must not only meet the requirements of 
the statute, but must also provide adequate equipment and 
satisfactory instruction. 

8. Lengthening course in second and third grade schools. 

The lengthening of the course in a second grade high 
school to four years and in a third grade high school to 
three years may be approved if no other educational op- 
portunities are available for the pupils of such schools. The 
application for such approval should give details as to the 
number of pupils in each year of the course, the distances 
between the school applying and neighboring high schools, 
conditions of the roads, trolley and railroad facilities, and 
other details necessary to an intelligent understanding of 
the needs of the pupils. All such applications must have 
the approval of the county superintendent. 

Whenever permission is given to conduct a longer course 
than the one provided by law, such permission is given on 
condition that any pupil who has completed a course of 
statutory length may attend the nearest or most convenient 
school of higher grade for the remainder of the four-year 
course, and the local district shall be required to pay the 
pupil's tuition. 



13 

It should be noted that extension of the course of a second 
or third grade school does not change the grade of the 
school. 

9. Establishing high schools in fourth-grade districts. 

Section 1701 provides that no new high school shall be es- 
tablished in a school district of the fourth class without 
the consent of the State Council of Education and of the 
superintendent of schools of the county in which such dis- 
trict is located. 

10. Program of studies. 

Except in school districts of the first class, the board of 
school directors of every school district shall employ for its 
high school during the entire term a sufficient number of 
teachers for the teaching of any of the subjects included in 
the program of studies of the State Council of Education 
for which there shall be an application by fifteen pupils 
belonging to the grade in which such subject is specified in 
the said program of studies: Provided, that no pupil shall 
be counted among the applicants for such subject unless, in 
the judgment of the principal of the school, he is both quali- 
fied and entitled to take such subjects in the curriculum he 
is pursuing. This provision does not prevent the organiza- 
tion of any classes that a school sees fit to maintain. 

Tuition, textbooks, and supplies. 

1. General principles. Pupils residing in school districts in 
which no public schools are maintained may attend, during the en- 
tire term, the high schools in other districts which are nearest or 
most convenient to their homes. If any district maintains a high 
school with a course less than a complete course, pupils who have 
satisfactorily completed the same in the school of their own district, 
or have completed the equivalent of said course in some other school 
or schools, may attend, at the expense of the school board of the 
district in which they live, during the remaining years of a complete 
high school course, the nearest or most conveniently located high 
school of such class as tlhey may desire to attend. 

2. Consent of directors. Pupils wishing to attend high school in 
a district other than the one in which they reside shall obtain the 
consent of the board of school directors of the district in which such 
high school is located, before attending the same. If the district in 
which a pupil lives does not have a high school whose classification 
authorizes it to give the grade of instruction to which the pupil is 
entitled, or if its school is three miles or more from the pupil's home 
the pupil may attend the nearest or most convenient high school 



14 

without the consent of the directors of his home district, and his 
home district must pay the cost of tuition, textbooks, and supplies, 
unless transportation is furnished to the school in his home district. 

3. Certificates necessary. Pupils desirous of having the cost of 
their tuition, textbooks, and supplies paid in a high school in an- 
other district, on account of having completed in a school or schools 
in another district the equivalent of a course in their own district, 
must present to the board of their own district and the board of the 
district in which they wish to attend, a certificate from the county 
superintendent who has jurisdiction over the district in which they 
live, that they have satisfactorily completed the equivalent of said 
course. 

4. Tuition paid only to public schools. Under the provisions of 
Section 1707, pupils having cost of tuition, textbooks, and supplies 
paid by their home districts may attend only public schools in Penn- 
sylvania. Boards are not responsible for tuition in schools of other 
states nor in private schools. The secondary department of a nor- 
mal school is considered a public school of the State only when such 
department is the recognized high school of a school district. 

5. Length of term. When a non-resident pupil attends a school, 
the district of his residence is liable to the district of his attendance 
for the cost of tuition, textbooks, and supplies for the full term in the 
district where he attends, even though there is a shorter term in 
the district of his residence. 

6. Dismissal of non-resident pupils. After a pupil has been ad- 
mitted to a school outside of his own district he is entitled to con- 
tinue during the entire term for which he was admitted unless ex- 
cluded for causes stated in the law, such as failure to pass medical 
inspection because of contagious disease, insubordination, etc. 

7. Nearest or most convenient. The terms, nearest or most con- 
venient, which are used so frequently in the law concerning the pay- 
ment of tuition have been generally given a liberal interpretation 
by the courts. Such considerations as the time schedule of trains 
and conditions of roads have been held to be of vital importance in 
interpreting the term convenient. 

8. Tuition in vocational schools. The responsibility of boards 
for tuition charges for vocational schools is covered by the same 
laws as tuition in the regular high schools. 

9. How price of tuition is decided. Section 1708 of the School 

Code provides: 

"The board of school directors in any district maintaining a high school which is 
attended by any pupils residing in another district, as herein provided, shall, at the 
close of the terra, properly certify to the board of school directors of the district in 



15 

which such pupils reside, the names of all such pupils and the length of time they 
attended said high school together with the cost of tuition, textbooks, and supplies 
for such attendance, which shall not exceed the cost of tuition, textbooks, and sup- 
plies of other pupils in said high school pursuing similar studies for the same length 
of time, and the cost of such tuition, textbooks, and supplies shall, within thirty 
days after being so certified, be paid to the district maintaining such high school by 
the district to which the same was so certified. 

NOTE :- — The item 'tuition, textbooks and supplies' does not include interest on 
debt, janitor service, fuel, light, and things which have a permanent value after 
1hey are added to the school plant. Tuition includes teachers' salaries, the cost of 
attendance at institute, and such portion of the superintendent's or supervisor's time 
as is spent in the supervision of the high school. Supplies, in this section of the 
code, include pencils, pens, ink, crayon, tablets and things which perish with the 
using." 

Section 1711 provides: 

"The board of school directors of any district in which there is located a high 
school receiving a share of any appropriation for the salaries of high school teachers 
shall deduct its share of the last such appropriation received from the total cost of 
tuition, textbooks, and supplies, before computing the cost per pupil, in order to 
certify properly the expense for pupils attending the same from other districts." 

10. Agreement of boards. Section 1404 of- the School Code pro- 
vides that the board of school directors of any district in this Com- 
monwealth may, on account of convenience of access, or other 
reasons, permit any pupils to attend the schools of another district, 
on such terms as the two boards of school directors may mutually 
agree upon. 

11. Distance from school. A pupil qualified for high school re- 
siding three or more miles from the nearest high school in his own 
district may attend a more convenient high school in another dis- 
trict, and the district in which he resides shall be liable for his tui- 
tion. The pupil's home district is not, however, responsible for tui- 
tion in such a case, provided it furnishes free transportation to its 
own high school. 

Transportation 

1. Rights and obligations of directors. The board of school direc- 
ors of any district in this Commonwealth may, out of the funds of 
the district, provide for the free transportation of any pupil to and 
from the public schools. They are not legally required to provide 
transportation unless a high school within the district has been 
closed since the passage of the School Code in 1911. 

The decision of the courts has emphasized the responsibility of 
school directors in conducting public schools and providing adequate 
and reasonable opportunities for the children of the Commonwealth to 
attend them. The refusal of a board to transport must be based upon 



16 



/ 



the exercise of sound discretion where the circumstances are such 
that it is not reasonably possible to provide transportation. It is 
also a primary duty of the parents to do their part in securing such 
transportation. They are equally responsible with the school board. 

2. Schools dosed to stony better faeilitie-s. Wlhere any of the 
public schools of this Commonwealth are closed for any of the pur- 
poses provided in Section 1400, except for low atendance, pupils resid- 
ing one and one-half miles or mare from the school to which they are 
assigned shall be transported at the cost of the district. When 
schools are closed because there are ten or less than ten pupils 
regularly enrolled, one-half the cost of such transportation, not to 
exceed one dollar per diem per pupil, shall be paid by the Common- 
wealth, provision for which shall be made by separate appropriation 
in the general appropriation act. 

3. Measurement of distance. The distance between the pupil's 
home to the school shall be measured from the school building to 
which the pupil has been assigned by the highway to the nearest 
point where a private way or private road connects 1 the dwelling 
house of the pupil with said highway. 

4. Compulsory attendance. If a pupil between eight and sixteen 
years of age has completed the work of the elementary schools and 
has a superintendent's certificate to that effect, he is exempt from the 
provisions of the Compulsory Attendance Law unless there is a high 
school within two miles of his home, or unless transportation is 
provided for him by the district. Any pupil not exempt for the 
reasons given is subject to the provisions of the Compulsory At- 
tendance Law the same as a pupil attending the elementary schools. 

A pupil's home district is responsible for the enforcement of the 
Compulsory Attendance Law. 

High School Teachers. 

1. Certification. In order to be eligible to teach in a public high 
school of Pennsylvania a teacher must be the holder of one of the 
following certificates: Partial Secondary, Standard, College. 

A partial secondary certificate is issued upon the completion of 
two years of post-high-school study together with six semester hours 
of professional training. This certificate is good for one year, and 
is renewable upon six further semester hours of professional training. 
Tt entitles the holder to teach such subjects as have been pursued 
for at least twelve semester hours in the post-high-sdbool period. 

A standard certificate is issued upon evidence of the completion of 
a four year high sdhool course or equivalent education and two years 
(seventy semester hours) or the equivalent of professional training 
for teaching. Observation, participation and practice teaching of 



17 

not less than six semester hours or its equivalent must form a part 
of this requirement. 

This certificate is valid for two years and is renewable upon a 
rating of "low" or better. Subsequent renewals* 1 require a rating of 
"middle" or better. 

This certificate may become permanent at the end of its first period 
or of any subsequent renewal period on a rating of "middle'' or 
better and evidence of four years of successful teaching experience. 

In art education, commercial education, health education, home 
economics or music, not less than three years of approved training 
beyond high school grade in the specified field shall be required for 
a Standard Permanent Certificate. 

College certificates are issued to all graduates of approved colleges 
who have completed not less than eighteen semesters hours of pre- 
scribed professional study. College certificates are valid for three 
years and become permanent at the end of that time on evidence of 
successful teaching experience and six additional semester hours of 
professional study. 

Teachers now in the service of the public school system of 
Pennsylvania are given credit for successful teaching experience at 
the rate of four semester hours per year where the teacher rating 
is middle or better, and at the rate of three semester hours per year 
where the rating is less than middle. 

No teacher shall be employed to teach any branch other than those 
enumerated in his certificate. 

2. Sickness. Directors may pay teachers for time lost through 
sickness or other unavoidable circumstances. Tn case of sickness, 
no payment shall be made unless the teacher furnishes a certificate 
from a physician stating the nature of the sickness with the state- 
ment that he or she was unable to perform the duties of a teacher. 

3. Closing schools for contagious disease. When a board of 
directors has been obliged to close a school because of contagious 
disease, damage by fire, or other causes, such board of directors is 
liable for payment of salary to the teachers who are thus prevented 
from doing their work as teachers. The board must compensate the 
teacher at the rate specified in the contract between the board and 
the teacher. This compensation shall extend over the period of 
time during which the school is closed, and shall be in addition to 
the sums paid the teacher for his services while actually engaged in 
performing his duties. 

4. Teachers' pension fund. The school Employees' Ketirement 
System was created by Act of Assembly (School Code 5601) to be- 
come effective July 1, 1919. Its membership consists of (a) all per- 
sons who were school employees at the time the system went into 



18 

effect, and who elected to become members (b) all persons who 
enter the school service after July 1, 1910. 

The plan is administered by a board of seven members, including 
the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the Slate Treasurer, one 
member appointed by the Governor of the Commonwealth, and elect- 
ed members. 

The funds are obtained through contributions by the members and 
the contribution by the Commonwealth of specified amounts which 
are appropriated by the Legislature, based upon actuarial estimates. 
Contributions from the members are forwarded by the employer 
regularly. The employer must deduct from every payroll of a mem- 
ber such a percentum of the total amount of salary as the Retirement 
Board, under the advice of its actuary, shall require. No deduction 
is made for that part of a contributor's salary which is in excess of 
$2,000 per annum. 

If a member separates from the school service in any other way 
than by death) or retirement, he may receive the full amount of 
deductions made from his salary with compound interest; or he 
may elect to receive an annuity or deferred annuity, which shall be 
the actuarial equivalent of his accumulated deductions. 

An employe who has separated himself from the school system 
may return within three years, upon restoration of his accumulated 
deductions as they were at the time of separation. 

In the event of a member's death before retirement, his accumulated 
deductions shall be paid to his estate or some designated person. 

A member who has reached the age of G2 is eligible for super- 
annuation retirement. A member beyond that age may continue in 
active service until he is 70, but he is not required to make further 
contributions to the system. 

A contributor may be retired upon disability before the age of 
62, upon certification of disability by a physician, provided that said 
contributor has had ten or more school years of school service. The 
retirement board may require a yearly medical examination of a 
disability annuitant, and upon such evidence may discontinue or 
reduce the annuity paid the contributor. 

Upon retirement for disability, the contributor shall receive an 
allowance of one-ninetieth of his final salary multiplied by the number 
of his years of service ; this shall in no case be less than thirty per 
centum of his final salary, nor shall it be more than eight-ninths of 
the allowance to which he would have been entitled had retirement 
been deferred until age 62. 

A contributor who has reached the age of 62 may retire upon 
filing with the Retirement Board a written statement. Every con- 
tributor who has attained the age of 70 shall be retired forthwith, or 
at the end of the school term in which said age of 70 years is attained. 



19 

Such a contributor shall receive one-eightieth of his final salary 
for each year of service prior to 02 years, his total annuity not to 
exceed fifty percentum of his final salary. 

Final salary means the average annual salary, not exceeding $2,000, 
earned by a contributor as an employe for the ten years of service 
immediately preceding retirement. 

Joint schools. The chapter on "Essentials of Secondary School 
Opportunities" emphasizes the importance of an organization large 
enough to afford some variety of curriculums. In many communities 
this end can be secured only by combining the facilities rf two or 
more districts. In most subjects a teacher can instruct a class of 
twenty-five pupils as cheaply as a class of a half dozen or less. Con- 
solidation, therefore, Avill often make possible economies sufficient to 
provide transportation and to add types of instruction impossible in 
a smaller school. 

Section 1801 of the School Code gives in detail the steps necessary 
to effect such an organization. It is important that such schools be 
organized in strict conformity with the law. 

The legislature of 1921 provides in Section 127 for t lie merging of 
two or more school districts into a single district. In many cases 
this will prove the most satisfactory method of providing a high 
school large enough to be of greatly increased efficiency. 

Vocational schools. 

1. Establishment. Vocational classes (industrial, argicultural, 
home economics, and continuation) may be established either in 
connection with, or distinct from regularly organized high schools. 
Special vocational schools may be established where needed. All 
such vocational classes and vocational schools must be organized 
and conducted in accordance with Sections 3406-34H7 of the School 
Code. 

2. Reimbursement. Approved vocational classes and schools are 
entitled to reimbursement from State and Federal vocational funds 
to an amount equal to two-thirds the sum which has been expended 
for instruction, provided no one school district slhall receive more 
than five thousand dollars in any one school year from State voca- 
tional funds. 

State scholarship examination. 

In order to assist worthy graduates of secondary schools of the 
State to obtain a higher education, the Legislature (Sections 4301- 
4305 School Code) in 1919 made possible the awarding, in each county 
or senatorial district, of at least one scholarship. Each scholarship 
award amounts to |400 toward a four year college education. The 
law requires tihat the State Council of Education shall make the ap- 



20 

poiutment to these scholarships on the basis of competitive exami- 
nation. 

The rules regulating the conduct of examinations and the award of 
the scholarships, adopted by the State Council of Education, are as 
follows : 

1. Date of examinations. The State Scholarship Examinations 
shall be held on the first Friday in May of each calendar year. 

2. Time for examinations. The examinations will be held from 
9:00 A.M. to 1:30 P.M. 

Place of examinations. The examinations will be conducted in all 
first grade high schools in Pennsylvania where one or more candi- 
dates make application before the first of April preceding the date of 
examination, except that in cities having more than one first grade 
school the examination will be held in the school or schools designated 
by the Department of Public Instruction. 

3. Subjects offered in examinations. Each candidate will be ex- 
amined in English, including composition and literature, American 
history, and one of the following: Mathematics, including algebra 
and plane geometry, Latin, German, French, Spanish, biology, phy- 
sics, chemistry. 

i. Instructions for the principal. The principal of each high 
school where there are eligible candidates shall clearly announce the 
nature, the purpose, and the date of the examination to all eligibles 
at least one month prior to the date of examination. He shall sub- 
mit to the Department of Public Instruction not less than twenty 
days before the examination, a complete list of all applicants for the 
examination, including the following data for each candidate: 

Name in full 

Place of residence : 

County 

Borough or City 

Street and Number 

State 

Senatorial District 

Name of High School 

Year when candidate will graduate 

When candidate expects to enter college 

College candidate expects to attend 

5. General instruction* for examiner and candidates. The sealed 
package containing the examination questions shall not be opened 
until 8:45 A. M. on the day scheduled for the examination. 



21 

The examiner should prepare an alphabetical list of candidates. 
Each candidate should check his papers in the presence of the ex- 
aminer by writing the subjects of the answer papers he submits op- 
posite his name on the list prepared by the examiner. This is im- 
portant. 

At the close of the examination the examiner shall send all answers 
together with the alphabetical list of candidates by express, collect, 
to the Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. 

If any corrections or suggestions in regard to the examination 
questions are made to the candidates by the examiner such correc- 
tions shall be repeated fully in writing on the examination list that 
is sent to the Department of Public Instruction. 

The candidate's name and permanent address (including county I 
must be distinctly written on every sheet of paper containing answers. 
All sheets comprising any examination must be securely fastened in 
a separate manuscript. 

All manuscripts of each candidate must be securely fastened to- 
gether. 

The examination papers of each candidate must have attached 
thereto a form, completely filled out, containing the data as to name, 
residence, etc.. called for in blank at the top of the page. 

The following directions must be carefully followed: 

1. All examinations must be written in ink. 

2. Write proper headings for your papers, and number your work according 

to the number on the question papers. 

3. Use one side of examination paper only. 

4. Time allowed — 9 :00 A. M. to 1 :30 P. M. All papers are to be collected 

at 1 :30 P. M. 

5. The amount of time to be allotted to each subject is left to the discretion 

of the candidate. 

6. Each examination must be begun on a separate sheet of paper. 

7. No answer paper in any subject conspicuously faulty in English composi- 

tion will be given a passing grade. 

6. Eligibility. Any student graduating in February or June from 
a four year course in any high school of first grade standing in Penn- 
sylvania is eligible for the examination in May of the year of such 
graduation. 

Graduates of four year courses in private and parochial schools 
which are accredited as first grade schools by the Department of 
Public Instruction are eligible. 

Any eligible candidate presenting himself for examination shall 
be admitted. In case of doubt on the part of the examiner, let the 
candidate go on with the examination; submit a statement of his 
case, and the Department will later determine his eligibility. 



22 

7. Award of scholarship. The award of scholarships shall be an- 
nounced by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction to the 
candidate in each county or senatorial district who receives the high- 
est rating for his county or district. The announcement will be made 
as soon as possible after the records have been completed. 

Persons to whom scholarships are available must attend a college 
or university in Pennsylvania approved by the State Council of Edu- 
cation. These scholarships are awarded only to students who pursue 
regular four year college courses leading to the B. A., B. S., or 
equivalent degrees. 

Each candidate to whom an award has been made must return the 
Certificate of Acceptance or Rejection, properly filled out, within ten 
days following the date when the award was made. 

Should a successful candidate fail to enter college during the fall 
term of the year in which he receives the award, the scholarship will 
be forfeited. 

In case of reje?tion or forfeiture of the award, the scholarship shall 
be given to the candidate standing next highest on the list in his 
county, provided the candidate has a satisfactory standing. 

In counties or senatorial districts entitled to a scholarship where 
only one candidate is examined, the award shall be made to that 
candidate provided he passes a satisfactory examination. 

Note 1. A list of the colleges and universities in Pennsylvania, 
approved by the State Council of Education, will be furnished by the 
Department. 

Note 2. Examination and award of scholarship does not carry 
with it admission to college. A holder of a scholarship must satisfy 
the entrance requirements of the college he or she desires to attend. 

8. Payment of scholarship. Before payment is made, the registrar 
of each college or university, where students having state scholar- 
ships attend, shall certify to the Department on a special form for 
each student, at such time during the school year as the Department 
may request, that the student is enrolled in the institution for the 
current year and is in good standing. 

The State Treasurer shall pay to each successful candidate the 
sum of .$100 during the spring term of each of the four years that he 
regularly attends college and is in good standing. 

Scholarship at the Colorado School of Mines 

One scholarship at the Colorado School of Mines is awarded to 
Pennsylvania, each year. Tin 1 selection of the candidate for this 
scholarship is made by the regular State Scholarship Examination. 

The candidate for the scholarship at the Colorado School of Mines 
must designate on his papers that he is a candidate for this scholar- 



23 

ship. This candidacy, however, does not necessarily remove him 
from competition for a State scholarship. In other words, a student 
may be a candidate for the Colorado scholarship at the Colorado 
School of Mines, bnt if he fails to secure that scholarship his paper 
may be included in the competition for the scholarship for his county 
or senatorial district. In all such cases, however, his papers must 
contain a definite statement that he wishes to be a candidate for the 
State scholarship in case he fails to -secure the Colorado scholarship. 
The principal should clearly designate on his list the names of 
pupils competing for this scholarship. 

The following principles govern the award and the holding of the 
scholarship at the Colorado School of Mrnes: 

1. Scholarships are awarded to graduates of four year secondary school courses 
of the current year who show marked proficiency in their studies and are recom- 
mended by the proper school official. 

2. Applications with recommendations must be on file with the Registrar of 
the Colorado School of Mines on or before July 1, of the year of graduation. 

3. A candidate must satisfy all requirements. for admittance without condition. 

4. All scholarships are awarded for a period of four years and exempt the holder 
from all tuition or labortory fees. 

5. A scholarship will be terminated if the holder does not maintain a satis- 
factory standing or does not comply with the requirements of the faculty or the 
trustees. 

6. If the holder of a scholarship leaves school permanently, his scholarship may 
not be assigned or transferred. 

7. The holder of a scholarship may, with the consent of the President secured 
in advance, absent himself from school for a period of not more than one year and 
retain his scholarship. 

8. The monetary value of scholarships to residents of Colorado is approximately 
$50.00 annually ; to non-residents approximately $200.00 annually. 

Fifteen units are required for entrance, of which ten are specified and five may be 
chosen from a list of electives. 

A candidate desiring to compete for this scholarship should so specify on the date 
of the examination. 



Specified Units 

Essentials of Algebra 1 Unit 

Advanced Algebra % 

Plane Geometry 1 

Solid Geometry % " 

English 3 " 

History 2 

Physics 1 " 

Chemistry 1 " 

Specified Units 10 

Elective Units 5 

Total units for entrance 15 



24 



25 



IV. ADMINISTRATION OF THE PROGRAM OF 

STUDIES 

1. A unit. A unit shall consist of the satisfactory completion of 
the equivalent of 120 sixty minute recitation hours of work requir- 
ing preparation outside of class. Work requiring no outside prepara- 
lion shall be counted as l / 2 the unit value of work requiring out- 
side preparation. Work to be given half credit ordinarily includes 
the following subjects: manual training, shop work of all kinds, 
drawing, music in class, physical training, typewriting, penman- 
ship. Whether certain other work such as cooking, sewing, and 
bookkeeping is given full or half credit depends on the requirement 
of outside preparation of lessons. 

Any arrangement of recitations for any length of school year can 
be reduced to its unit value on an arithmetical basis. For example: 
the arithmetical statement for forty-five minute recitations per week 
for a school year of forty weeks would be 

4 x 45 x 40 

-SO" =12 ° 

On this basis five forty minute recitations per week for a school 
year of thirty-six weeks would just come within the standard re- 
quirement for a unit. 

2. A count. The term count has not been used because it repre- 
sents widely varying standards. It is ordinarly understood to 
mean one recitation a day for a school year. The length of recita- 
tions and of years, however, has varied all the way from twenty -five 
minutes for twenty-eight weeks, to forty-five minutes for forty weeks. 
For this reason the statement that the high school course consists 
of a certain number of counts is indefinite. 

3. Graduation. First grade schools should make sixteen units 
of work the basis for graduation. It is recommended that pupils be 
graduated from the school rather than from a particular course in 
the school. While there is no objection to the graduation of an ex- 
ceptional pupil in less than four years, the school should always 
accept the burden of proof that the case is exceptional and that the 
pupil has fully met all graduation requirements. 

Boards of directors in charge of first grade schools have full 
authority to increase the number of units required for graduation. 

4. Recitation periods. Recitation periods should be not less 
than forty minutes and not more than sixty minutes in length, ex- 
clusive of the time required for passing to and from classes, except 



26 

where supervised study is in operation. Where supervised study is 
in operation, a combined period of sixty minutes should be counted 
as equivalent to a forty-five minute recitation period. 

5. The program of studies. The program of studies includes all 
the subjects offered in a given school, without reference to any 
principle of organizing these subjects or courses into curriculums. 

6. A curriculum. A curriculum is a group of subjects or courses 
systematically arranged for any pupil or for any clearly differ- 
entiated group of pupils. It extends through a number of years and 
leads to a certificate or diploma. Administratively a curriculum 
represents an arrangement of courses within which a pupil is direct- 
ed in his choice of work leading to graduation. 

7. A course of study. A course of study means the quantity, kind, 
and organization of subject matter in any given subject of instruc- 
tion offered within a definite period of time; e. g., first year algebra, 
third year physics. 

8. A standard day for teachers. The conditions under which 
teachers are conducting third grade high schools necessitate a 
larger number of periods per day and a much wider range of subjects 
than ought to be required of any teacher. Teachers and boards of 
education should be shown the serious limitations imposed upon 
these schools, and should be encouraged to send pupils, wherever 
possible, to larger organizations which enable work to be done under 
better conditions. For the present the maximum number of periods 
per day should be ten and, it is strongly recommended that wherever 
it is possible, a teacher's work in third grade schools be reduced to 
eight periods per day. 

The limitations imposed by the necessary conditions of work in 
a second grade school are somewhat less serious than those imposed 
upon a third grade school. The second grade school, however, in a 
similar way suffers under a serious handicap. Teachers, boards of 
education, and communities should recognize that neither second nor 
third grade schools can possibly afford such satisfactory educational 
opportunities as larger organizations. 

For the present the maximum number of daily periods assigned to 
a teacher in second grade schools should be seven, and, wherever it is 
possible, the number should be reduced to six per day. 

The maximum number of daily periods assigned to a teacher in 
first grade schools should be six, and, wherever it is possible, the 
number should be reduced to five per day. 

9. The school program. The program of studies and the cur- 
riculum of any school should be outlined with the following consider 
ations in view: 



27 

1. School authorities, communities, and pupils should understand that 
the work of the school is the pupils' business, and that outside interests 
must not interfere with the demands of the school. 

2. The school itself must assume a larger amount of responsibility for the 
preparation of the lessons. 

Iii accordance with these considerations, the following recom- 
mendations are made: 

1. That a materially lengthened school day be encouraged in which them 
shall be larger opportunity for preparation of lessons under the supervision 
of the teacher and for various kinds of student activities. In order to 
provide adequate time for these various purposes the school day should con- 
sist of at least eight periods in addition to the time devoted to assembly. 
Where supervised study is in operation the school day should consist of not 
less than six periods of at least sixty minutes each. 

A two-session school day, or a school day lasting approximately from nine 
to three thirty or four o'clock, with a thirty or forty-five minute lunch, is 
essential to satisfactory school work. 

2. Since excessive employment out of school seriously interferes with 
school work, it should be discouraged. Students who are obliged to Work 
three hours per day or more should ordinarily not attempt to carry the full 
schedule of school work and should plan to spend more than four years in 
the completion of the course. 

10. Two fundamental principles. The program of studies V ;, 
high school should observe the two following principles: 

1. There must be in all curriculums a common core of required subjects 
which can be justified because they are an essential part of the education 
in citizenship of every adolescent and are necessary for the perpetuation 
of our democratic social order. 

2. In addition to this core curriculum, which should be required of all 
pupils, each school should offer as wide a variety of subjects as possible in 
order to meet the varying needs of diverse groups of individuals. 

11. List of required studies. The essentials under Principal 1 
include the following: 

English • 3 Mi units 

Social studies, including history 3 Ms units 

Science 1 unit 

Mathematics 1 unit 

Health instruction 2 periods a week 

12. Exceptional cases. It will sometimes happen that a pupil 
will be unable to take the full course in history and the social studies 
without interfering with his preparation for college, or the comple- 
tion of his vocational course within the usual high school curriculum. 
In such cases pupils may be graduated with two and one-half units of 
this work. In all cases a course in American history should be 
included in the eleventh or the twelfth year. 



28 

13. Health instruction. Health instruction, including physical 
training, at least two periods a week should be required. In some 
vocational curriculuins, which include a large amount of physical 
work, it "may be wise to excuse pupils from some portions of the 
physical training of this course. Corrective exercises designed to 
overcome individual physical defects, should be available for all 
pupils needing such treatment. 

14. Science. The special task of high sdhool science is to help 
the pupil organize the facts and forces of his material world in a logi 
cal, usable fashion so that he may be increasingly able to use the 
knowledge and processes thus gained in a progressively effective a 
daptation if his living and thinking to the social, physical, and econ- 
omic life about him. The high school courses in science should be 
such that, a pupil, for example, who has not less than four years of 
science instruction — three years in the junior high school and not 
less than one in the senior high school — should show the result of his 
science work in such respects as the following: 

As a worthier member of his home because increasingly sensitive to house- 
hold problems involving the health and comfort of all and also increasingly 
able and ready to propose and supply solutions of these problems. 

As a worthier member of the school and civic community because increas- 
ingly sensitive to such problems as sanitation and hygiene, first aid and 
accident prevention, and increasingly able and ready to cooperate in their 
solution. 

In a growing vigor of body and brain because increasingly sensitive and 
responsive to the laws of nature governing their development and use. 

In a greater appreciation and enjoyment of the wonders and beauties 
of nature because increasingly intelligent with reference to the significant 
facts and forces of nature. 

In a growing appreciation of the place of scientific research and procedure 
in the development of our industrial, commercial, and agricultural life because 
increasingly intelligent with reference to the scientific processes involved 
in the production and distribution of the products of farm and factory. 

While only one year of science is required in the four-year high 
school, it is highly desirable that the majority of pupils have the 
advantage of from two to four years of science. Progressive thought 
in curriculum making and in curriculum guidance places strong 
emphasis upon the importance and value of the study of science in 
American high schools. 

15. Mathematics. The unit of required mathematics may best 
be given in the ninth year, although conditions may in some cases 
justify placing it later in some curriculuins. If the subject matter 
is algebra, it should be reorganized so as to exclude a considerable 
hody of purely formal material now customarily included. General 
or composite mathematics has many advantages as the subject for 



29 

the ninth year course. If commercial pupils can arrange their pro- 
grams so as to take general mathematics in the ninth year, it is 
highly desirable that they do so. Where this can not be done, com 
rnercial arithmetic may be the required unit for these pupils. 

16. Advanced mathematics and foreign language elective. It is 
recommended that mathematics beyond the first year and all foreign 
language be elective. This should not be interpreted to mean that 
these subjects should be elective in all the curriculums of a given 
school. The larger schools will be likely to include at least an aca- 
demic curriculum, a commercial curriculum, a home economics cur- 
riculum, and a practical arts curriculum. Each of these curriculums 
should, of course, include as requirements subjects belonging to its 
particular field. 

In the smaller schools, especially in the second and third grade 
schools, which can afford only a single curriculum, the mathematics 
beyond the first year and all foreign language should be elective. 
Many of these schools will find it advantageous either to eliminate 
foreign language entirely or to permit pupils who particularly de- 
sire to do so, to carry it as a fifth subject. It is generally unwise 
for a school with fewer than five teachers to give instruction in a 
second foreign language. 

17. Practical and fine arts, and vocational education. The term, 
practical arts includes industrial, household, and agricultural arts. 
Tt embraces that group of activities for both boys and girls found 
in curriculums of the elementary and high schools, which are some- 
times referred to as practical because they involve manipulation of 
materials and development of a degree of power to do things with 
the hands. No definite vocational aim is present in such instruc- 
tion. The main objectives are general education, information that 
will be valuable for guidance purposes, and an appreciation of 
values which will tend to develop wise consumers. Many secondary 
school curriculums of the academic type allow for electives in practi- 
cal and fine arts subjects. Practical and fine arts work is begun in 
the elementary or junior high school grades before pupils are ma- 
ture enough to enter upon vocational preparation. It may be con- 
sidered as a forerunner of vocational education. Opportunity is 
also given under the headings of drawing and music to give short 
courses in these subjects for the development of appreciation. This 
type of work is usually taught in relatively large classes, meeting 
from once to three times a week. These courses should not be con- 
fused with the Fine Arts Courses listed as electives, which should 
usually be full unit courses. 

Vocational education, on the other hand, is specific in its aim. Its 
instruction directly prepares producers for entrance into a gainful 



30 

occupation. More time is required for the development of manipula- 
tive skill. The demands of a vocational curriculum, therefore, neces- 
sarily place a limitation upon the quantity of purely academic work 
that can be accomplished. 

18. School credit for outside study of music. Music is properly 
the first educational interest of many of our young people, and should 
he recognized as an integral part of their education. A pupil who 
wishes to continue music as a major educational interest should not 
be compelled to choose between leaving the high school, overburden- 
ing himself with both music and the regular high school work, or 
dropping music. Until provision is made in our public schools for 
instruction in music as an educational unit of equal value with 
other subjects, justice to these pupils requires that they at least be 
given school credit for properly supervised work done at tlheir own 
expense with private teachers. To this end the Department has 
outlined a plan for proper accrediting of music for pupils who wish 
to present music as an integral part of their individual curriculums. 
In the program of studies this type of music is listed under the fine 
arts courses. These courses should usually be sufficiently exacting 
to receive credit of one unit each per year. 

The details of this plan as well as of courses to be given in the 
high school will be included in the music syllabus. 

19. List of subjects. The program of studios from which the 
curriculums of any senior or four year high school should be made up 
will include a wide range of subjects. The following list is suggest- 
ive. Schools which desire to teach subjects not included in this list 
should communicate with the Department of Public Instruction. 



First Year 



Second Tear 



Required 



English 

Civics 

Health Instruction 

Elective (2) 

Algebra 

General Mathematics 
Commercial Arithmetic 
General Science 
Foreign Language 
Etymology 

Junior Business Training, etc. 
Drawing 
Music 

Practical Arts Courses : 
Agricultural 



Required 



English 

European History 
Health Instruction 

Elective (2) 

Mathematics (Plane Geometry) 

Biology 

General Science 

Foreign Language 

Commercial and Economic Geography 

Typewriting 

Shorthand 

Bookkeeping 

Drawing 

Music 

Practical Arts Courses : 



:J1 



Elective (2) 

Home Economics 
Industrial 
Fine Arts Courses: 
Art 
Music 



Elective (2) 

Agricultural 
Home Economics 
Industrial 
Fine Arts Courses: 
Art 
Music 



Third Year 



Fourth Year 



Required 



Required 



English 1 or Vz 

Problems of Democracy 1 or x k 

American History (if not given the third 

year) 
Health Instruction 

Elective (2) 

Mathematics (Solid Geom. Vz, Trig. V2, 

Advanced Alg.) 
Physics or Chemistry 
Physical Geography 
Economics 
Sociology 

Studies in English or American Litera- 
ture (not History of Literature) 
Stenography 
Typewriting 
Elementary Accounting 
Advertising and Salesmanship 
Office Practice 
Commercial Law 
Bookkeeping 
Drawing 
Music 
Practical Arts Courses : 

Agricultural 

Home Economics 

Industrial 
Fine Arts Courses: 

Art 

Music 



20. The curriculum of the individual school. The general pro- 
visions of the program of studies set forth above are designed to safe- 
guard the fundamental purposes of the high school as an institution 
for the training of citizens of a democracy. To that end, certain 
prescribed subjects in the lines of English, the social studies, and 
health are made the common basis of all curriculums. In addition, 
a wide range of subjects is suggested from which curriculums of 
schools should be formulated. 



English 

American History or Europ. Hist.II 

Health Instruction 



Elective (2) 

Mathematics (Sol. Geom., Adv. Alg., Trig.) 

Physics or Chemistry 

Foreign Language 

Bookkeeping 

Typewriting 

Stenography 

Business Organization 

Retail Selling 

Commercial and Economic Geography 

Drawing 

Music 

Practical Arts Courses : 

Agricultural 

Home Economics 

Industrial 
Fine Arts Courses : 

Art 

Music 



32 

The first problem of a school in organizing its curriculums is that 
of the largest service to the young people of the community. How 
wide the range of offerings is to be will obviously depend on the size 
of the school and the resources of the community. From five general 
lines suggested under the heading, "Essentials of Secondary School 
Opportunities", should be made such curriculums as will render the 
largest service to the greatest number of pupils. Frequently, several 
of the type curriculums given in this chapter, or appropriate modi- 
fications of these curriculums, can be offered. Mere tradition should 
not be permitted too large an influence in the decision of what sub- 
jects are to be included in the program of the school. For example, 
the high school in a community from which few students go to college 
should not stress foreign languages, nor should courses in bookkeep- 
ing, stenography, and typewriting be offered in communities where 
there is no demand for bookkeepers and stenographers. School of- 
ficers, superintendents, principals, and teachers should carefully sur- 
vey the educational needs and resources of their communities and en- 
deavor to adjust the high school course to meet these needs. 

21. Shall a pupil take four or five major subjects? The curri- 
culums of this manual are based on the iissumption that a normal 
pupil shall have twenty recitation periods per week in the major sub- 
jects. This is in harmony with the best general practice of the coun- 
try. It leaves the daily schedule sufficiently free to permit the pupil 
to add five periods a week in subjects that do not require home pre- 
paration such as physical training, drawing, and music, and thus 
provides a sufficiently heavy roster for the ordinary pupil. Many 
of the smaller schools, however, are at present requiring pupils to 
take five major subjects, each five times a week, thus making it im- 
possible for them to get any drawing or music and often seriously 
limiting the physical training. The general trend of educational 
theory is not in harmony with this practice. 

It is possible to organize a program so as to include five major 
subjects and at the same time provide for the desirable unprepared 
work. Classes in the major subjects should in such cases meet only 
four times a week. The requirement of 120 sixty -minute hours for a 
unit can be met under this system with forty-five minute periods for 
a school year of forty weeks, which is rapidly becoming the minimum 
standard in the states having the best educational systems. 

The great advantage of this system is that it permits considerably 
greater flexibility in the pupils' curriculums. Twenty periods of pre- 
pared work are not too much for a normal boy or girl, and the in- 
clusion of an extra subject each year gives a broader curriculum, 
which opens new fields of interest and enriches the pupil's acquaint- 
ance with our complex civilization. 



33 

22. Typical curriculums. The following curriculums are given 
merely as suggestive types. They are not to be understood as pre- 
scriptions. The most highly specialized curriculums have not been 
included. Principals are invited to make such adaptations of the 
general plan as wall best suit their communities and t<> consitlt freely 
with the Department of Public Instruction. 

The attention of principals is called to Resolution 7 of the Edu- 
cational Congress, which has received the endorsement of large groups 
of secondary school men of the State: "Resolved, That courses of 
study (curriculums) be organized with a view to the largest service 
to all students, ninety per cent of whom do not go to college. That 
the colleges be urged to cooperate with the high schools by giving an 
opportunity for higher education to those whom high school princi- 
pals recommend as qualified to profit by college courses". 

The type curriculums given below are made on the basis of four pre 
pared subjects as the standard requirements. If four-period units 
are the standard for the school, pupils will take an additional sub 
ject. In addition it is expected that each pupil will have, as a rule, 
one period a day of unprepared work. This should include drawing, 
music, and physical training. Credit should be given towards gradua- 
tion on the basis of the definition of the term, unit, on page 25. 

In the curriculum designated as Academic /, provision is made for 
five prepared subjects in the last two years. This curriculum was 
formulated in a conference with a committee of the College Presi- 
dents' Association and is designed spe?ifically for students desiring 
to present two foreign languages for college entrance. These pupils 
are likely to be among those of superior ability, and such pupils are 
frequently able to carry an extra subject without undue strain. 



A CADEMIG I 








First Year 




Second Year 






Units 




Units 


English 


1* 


English 


1 


Civics 


y 2 


European History 


1 


European Hist. 


V2 


Plane Geometry 


1 


Algebra . 


i 


Latin 


1 


Latin 


i 


Health Instruction 


Partial 


Health Instruction 


Partial 


Drawing 


Partial 


Drawing 


Partial 


Music 


Partial 


Music 


Partial 







•Major courses except in laboratory science may be either four or five periods a 
week as suggested in the topic, "Shall a pupil take four or five major subjects", 
page 32 above. If four hour units arc given, a pupil should ordinarily take fivi 
major subjects. 
3 



::i 



Third Year 



Fourth Year 



English 

American History 

Biology, Chemisty, orPhysics 

Latin 

Second Foreign Language 

Health Instruction 



1 English 1 

1 Latin 1 

1 Second Foreign Language 1 

1 Physics, Chemistry, or Mathematics 1 

1 Health Instruction Partial 

Partial One elective 1 



ACADEMIC II 



First Year 




Second Year 




Engl.sh 

Civics 

General Science 


1 

1 
1 


English 

European H. story 
Plane Geometry 


1 

1 

1 


General Mathematics or Algebn 

Health Instruction 

Drawing 

Music 


i 1 
Partial 
Partial 
Partial 


Foreign Language 
Health Instruction 
Drawing 
Music 


1 
Partial 
Partial 
Partial 


Third Year 




Fourth Year 




English 


1 


English 


1 


American History 

Physics 

Foreign Language 

Health Instruction 

Practical or Fine Arts 


1 

1 

1 
Partial 
y 2 or 1 


Problems of Democracy 
Chemistry 
Foreign Language 
Health Instruction 
Practical or Fine arts 


1 

1 

1 

Partial 

i/ 2 or 1 


GENERAL 








First Year 


Units 


Second Year 


Units 


English 
Civics 


1 
1 


English 
European History 


1 

1 


General Mathematics 
General Science 
Health Instruction 
Drawing 
Music 


1 

1 
Partial 
Partial 
Partial 


Biology 

Health Instruction 
Drawing 
Music 

Choose one: 

Practical Arts Courses : 
Agricultural ) 


1 
Partial 
Partial 
Partial 






Home Economics v 


y 2 to 2 






Industrial \ . 








Fine Arts Courses : 








Art ) 
Music t 


Vz or 1 


Third Year 




Fourth Year 




English 

European History 
Health Instruction 
Drawing 


1 

1 
Partial 
Partial 


English 

Problems of Democracy- 
Health Instruction 
Drawing 


1 

1 
Partia 
Partia 



35 



Third Year 








Fourth Year 


Music 




Partial 


Music 


Chouse two: 




2 




Choose two: 


Commercial and Econ. Geography 


1 




Commercial Subjects 


Commercial Subjects 




1 or 


2 


Chemistry 


Physics 




1 




Agricultural 


Practical Arts Courses: 








Home Economic i 


Agricultural "^ 








Industrial 


Home Economics \_ 




y to 


2 


Practical Arts Courses: 


Industrial \ 








Fine Arts Courses : 


Fine Arts Courses: 








Art ) 


Art | 
Music 




y 2 or 


1 


Music i 



Partial 

1 to 2 
1 



y 2 to 2 



y 2 or 1 



23. A program of studies. A more flexible plan for presenting 
eurriculums is the arrangement of the entire offering of the 
school on some such plan as is given on pages 37-38. This method of 
publication affords great flexibility and challenges pupils and parents 
to give careful thought to the selection of studies. It requires the 
principal and teachers to give more attention to the problem of 
guidance so as to prevent pupils taking the line of least resistance 
and to insure proper consideration of the abilities and needs of 
individual pupils. In addition to the majors of three and one-half 
units each in English and the social studies required by the State pro- 
gram, either two minors of two units each or a major of at least 
three units and minor are recommended. 

24. Curriculum guidance. From the beginning of his high school 
course, a pupil should have clearly in mind a general high school 
aim — vocational education, general education, or college preparation. 
To meet these aims the high school program of studies as shown 
herewith, presents five groups of courses — a required group and four 
curriculum groups. The course in vocational civic.- should render 
valuable assistance in educational and vocational choices. 

In planning his individual program of studies a pupil upon enter- 
ing high school sihould first decide which of the four curriculum 
groups — Academic, Commercial, Practical 'Arts, or Vocational — 
will help him best to realize his high school aim. A subject group 
so chosen becomes his major group. 

Having thus chosen his major subject group, a pupil entering high 
school should explicitly plan his entire four-year high school 
program, not with the thought that the program thus laid out be- 
comes fixed and unchangeable. In fact, such a program usually will 
undergo revision each year to accord with changes and development 
in the pupil's high school aim, but a general plan, even though only a 
tentative one, should always govern the choice of subjects for each 
year, so that a pupil will be conscious of a definite purpose running 



36 

through his high school program from beginning U> end. Such a 
lour- year individual program of study may be laid out in the follow- 
ing manner: 

I. Four <>r five subjects in addition to health instruction two periods a 
week, drawing two, and music one, constitute a standard program (Four 
subjects of five hours each, or five subjects four hours each). 
II. The subjects of the "Required Group" should first be listed for each year. 
III. The required (capitalized) subjects of the major curriculum group (Aca- 
demic. Commercial. Practical or Fine Arts, or Vocational) should next 
be listed for each of the four years. 
IV. The remaining subjects should be chosen with the advice and approval or 
the home-room teacher and the guidance counselor of the school. The 
following general suggestions will help : 

1. If the pupil expects to attend (-(liege and has a specific college in 
mind, the requirements of this particular college should be provided 
for in the pupil's program ; otherwise general college entrance re- 
quirements should be included. The major portion of a pupil's sub- 
jects will in such a case be selected from the Academic Group. 
However, all academic pupils will profit greatly by election of some 
subjects from the Practical Aits Group that, will provide opportunity 

for development of avocational interests and of special aptitudes, 
particularly in applied art or music. 

2. Commercial pupils will note that the work of the first year is all 
required. 

Shorthand in the second year should be regarded as an elective. 
— Only those who hope to continue it should begin it at this time. 

For the third and fourth years pupils should choose subjects that 
will prepare for one of the following definite objectives: steno- 
graphic work, general business and accounting work, or retail selling. 
For details regarding these three groups of subjects see more com- 
plete statement in the Commercial Education Syllabus. 
.">. Vocational pupils other than those in the commercial group will 
find in the Vocational Education Bulletins detailed suggestions for 
filling out the remaining subjects of their four-year program. 

Having thus laid out his school program, even though only 
tentatively, a pupil will make more intelligently, under proper 
guidance, the necessary revisions from year to year, and will pursue 
his high school work with greater zest and purposefulness, than 
would be the case if he made his selection of studies from year to 
year without reference to the remainder of his high school work. 
High school principals will find it profitable to have such a general 
program of high school studies as shown herewith and as may he 
adopted by the school boards of (heir respective districts printed on 
a large sheet (say 16" x 24") for display and study in elementary 
schools. Principals or other representatives of the high school 
should visit such schools shortly before promotion time from the 
eighth grade, to explain to pupils and teachers and parents the values 
and possibilities of high school education. For further details and 
suggestions on curriculum guidance, see Chapter VII of this manual. 



37 



a> J5 H « 



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« 5 O ™ CO 

"w 'm O m ft 

3 £-5 a; a °* 

O w 



HO' 



gJsS'- 

« S3 "^ 

oo-S u 

. hn OS b£ 

?? a) a; a 

ih-o p. 



En 



PI 



00 • 

HI? 

bit) g . 

"•a 



i 



^2" 



, *»'«> 5? 




S3S3 



sjud to 
13 .5 £»- a> 

t! -S g g • a: "3 

,13 3 ct'O o oi 



8l 

"So 

o" 

S3 _ w 

lf <j5o 






.a S ■ a 



H>«iH-«Hi-l 



SI 

?! « to 

ti oj j<s S .a 

o P.Cre »f 

KifHpqoPQPi 



B E Ig? 
if 



S SSI 



w ,2,2 .§£3 



s 



b| 



£H.S 

•Elf 



** »Hl-4Hi-l 



HHtHiHHHHi-l 






2S- 

oiO 



3.3aw 




Kf 2 




S£2 




E* 



I|I|sf 

■m • E oj * o 

■§ 1*111*1 



1*1 g 1 * 

So to© J^r a 






Eon 
•EEH 



►Si 



38 

Practically the same material as that shown on pages 33-34 is presented in the 
following tabulation, which is similar to the traditional arrangement of the 
curriculum. This arrangement is recommended for the smaller high schools in 
preference to the presentation of the offerings of the school in two or more closely 
defined curriculums. 



First Year 




Second Year 






Units 




Units 


English 


1 


English 


1 


Civics 


1 


European History 


1 


Mathematics 


1 


Health Instruction 


Partial 


General Science 


1 






Health Instruction 


Partial 






Music 


Partial 






Drawing 


Partial 






Choose One: 




Choose Three: 




Latin or Modern Foreign Lang 


1 


Latin 


1 


Etymology 


1 


Modern Foreign Language 


1 


Practical Arts Courses: 




Biology 


1 


Agricultural ) 




Plane Geometry 


1 


Home Economics s. 


% to 2 


Practical Arts Courses : 




Industrial ) 




Agricultural ) 




Fine Arts Courses: 




Home Economics l 


% to 2 


Art ) 
Music \ 




Industrial \ 




\k ®r 1 


Fine Arts Courses : 




Junior Business Training 


1 


Art ) 
Music f 


V2 or 1 






Bookkeeping 


1 


Third Year 




Fourth Year 




English 


1 


English 


1 


American History 


1 


Problems of Democracy 


1 


Health Instruction 


Partial 


Health Instruction 


Partial 


Choose Three: 




Choose Three: 




Latin 


1 


Latin 


1 


Modern Foreign Language 


1 


Modern Foreign Language 


1 


Mathematics 


1 


Mathematics 


1 


Physics 


1 


Chemistry 


1 


Practical Arts Courses: 




Practical Arts Courses: 




Agricultural ) 




Agricultural J 




Home Economics V 


% to 2 


Home Economics \ 


% to 2 


Industrial \ 




Industrial 1 




Fine Arts Courses : 




Fine Arts Courses : 




Art | 
Music I 




Art ) 




Vz or 1 


Music \ 


/ 2 to 1 



lT). Rotation of recitation periods. A rotation of recitation per- 
iods that permits tJhe advantages or disadvantages attending some 
periods of the school day to be shared by all subjects alike, has 
proved successful at many high schools. 



39 

The chart below illustrates the rotation of classes in a high school 
with seven daily recitation periods. .1 designates the classes schedul- 
ed for the first period on Monday, H those for tflie second, G those for 
the third, etc. 

Since some classes, such as those in physics, chemistry, etc., re- 
quire two consecutive periods, it is advisable to rotate the recitation 
periods by groups of two as far as possible; A being grouped with 
B, G with D, and E with F. G, standing by itself, can be used for 
the activities period of the school. An eight-period day can be pro- 
vided by adding another period so as to make a fourth two-period 
group. 

On Monday the classes will recite in alphabetical order, beginning 
with the A period. On Tuesday the G classes of Monday are shifted 
into the first period of the day, and the remaining classes are ad- 
vanced one period. On Wednesday the group E and F comes first, 
and the other classes recite two periods later. On Thursday the 
group G and D is put into first place, and the remaining classes are 
advanced two periods. On Friday group E and F is placed first, F 
preceding E; group A and B and group G and D follow in order; 
G comes last. In this way a more equitable distribution of the ad- 
vantages and disadvantages of the various periods is secured. 

SCHEDULE OF RECITATION PERIODS 

Recitation Periods Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday 

First ( A ) G ( E ) \ c \ j E ) 



Second ( B f ( A ) I F ) I D \ ( F 

Third f 0. ) j B J G ( E ) (A 



Fourth ) D f I O | j A ) 1 p f ) B 

Fifth j E j j D [ j B [ g C 

Sixth ) F \ ( E ] ( C ) ( A | j D 



Seventh G \ E! [ j D f ) B f G 

By lengthening the last period or two of each day, that is, the 
sixth and seventh, principals can use the device, moreover, as a 
means of providing opportunities for supervised or directed study. 
At least five different groups of classes are thus afforded such an 
opportunity each week. 

This schedule can be readily adapted to, a school in which any 
part of the subjects may be run on a four period basis by dropping 
out one of the days for any one of the units. For example, suppose 
English, mathematics, and Latin are four-period classes, and stenog- 
raphy and typewriting five period classes, the English in A will 
recite Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Friday; the mathematics 
in B, Monday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday; the Latin in G, 
Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday. The stenography can 
recite either for the full five days in one of these unite or for the 
full five periods of any other unit. 



40 

Principals who desire to study in greater detail the making of a 
high school roster are referred to Making a High School Program 
by M. W. Kichardson, published by The World Book Company, 
Yonkers-on-the-Hudson. 

Generally accepted principles and practices. 

Following is a summary of principles and practices of secondary 
education that are generally accepted. 

1. Duties and responsibilities of the board of school directors. 
(The School Code places upon the board of directors of a district full 
responsibility for the employment and dismissal of teachers, super- 
intendents, and other officers and employees; the adoption of text- 
books ; the purchase of school sites ; the repair and erection of school 
buildings; the extension of the school term beyond the compulsory 
period; the expansion of courses of study beyond the minimum 
courses; the enforcement of attendance and other laws regulating 
the schools; the levy, assessment, and collection of taxes; the de- 
termination of the types of schools, and such other duties as the 
law provides for the "maintenance and support of a thorough and 
efficient system of public schools" as required by the constitution. 

In discharging these duties, it is more and more being recognized 
that superintendents and principals should be looked to for advice. 
The training of principals and superintendents is coming to include 
more than the matters that have been considered purely profes- 
sional, such as the selection of teachers, choice of textbooks, and the 
organization of programs of study, curriculums, and courses of in- 
struction. School men everywhere are giving careful study to ques- 
tions of finance, school buildings and grounds including their proper 
care and supervision, the purchase and distribution of supplies, and 
all other administrative problems. Proper unification of a school 
system requires the extension of the influence and the responsibility 
of the chief professional officer of the district. A board of directors 
should employ as its chief educational officer only one whose judg- 
ment they can feel safe in following on such important matters. 

The organization, discipline, and supervision of instruction are 
generally recognized to be the particular province of the superin- 
tendent and principal. Boards of directors should in these matters 
confine themselves to their unquestioned right to legislate on general 
policies and to pass judgment on the success with which their poli- 
cies are enforced by their professional employees. 

2. Preparation of teachers. It is generally agreed that the edu- 
cation represented by a college course or its equivalent is highly de- 
sirable for a teacher in a high school. While the standards of the 
State of Pennsylvania do not require this preparation at present, 



41 

it should be recognized that in this respect the State is considerably 
lower in its requirements than most of the states having the best 
educational standing. Local boards of education have full authority 
to prescribe additional requirements. There is strong probability 
that there will be an increasing insistence upon college graduation 
or its equivalent as preparation for teaching positions in high 
schools. 

3. The one-teacher school. The one-teacher school should offer 
not more than a single curriculum involving a maximum of eight, 
or at the very utmost ten, regular recitation periods per day. Such 
schools must confine themselves to the two years' work provided by 
law unless they have permission from the Deparment of Public In- 
struction for an added year on the alternating plan. It is generally 
unwise for such schools to attempt to teach a foreign language. 

4. Foreign language in small schools. Schools having six teachers 
or fewer should confine themselves to a single foreign' language. 
Latin is likely to be the most valuable language for such schools. 
Schools having two teachers should give not more than two years 
of foreign language. 

5. A single curriculum in a small school. Schools having from 
two to five teachers should so correlate their offerings as to form a 
single curriculum with various electives to provide for individual 
needs. Such schools should avoid organizing classes for relatively 
few pupils. 

6. Classification of pupils from other high schools. A school re- 
ceiving a pupil from another high school must satisfy itself as to the 
ability of the pupil to do its work and to meet its standards in a 
satisfactory manner. It should at the same time exercise this au- 
thority in a spirit of service rather than one of arbitrary exaction. 
A real problem is encountered in the first grade schools that receive 
pupils from second and third grade schools, where the conditions are 
generally less favorable. It frequently happens that pupils who have 
spent two or three years in the smaller schools demonstrate a higher 
grade of ability aft^r admission to the larger school than an entrance 
examination would indicate. A safe rule for continuous work in 
such cases is to credit previous work in the subject on the satisfac- 
tory completion of advanced work. Thus a pupil who does good 
work in third year Latin or mathematics may safely be credited 
with the work of the first two years in those subjects. It is gener- 
ally safe to credit all work of pupils showing a high grade of ability 
after a reasonable probationary period. 

7. Basis for organizing classes. Classes should be organized 
upon the basis of the greatest good to the largest number. Classes 
should not be formed for the benefit of a very few pupils. It is un- 



42 

fair to the rest of the pupils in a school to overburden a teacher for 
the sake of providing work that is otherwise desirable but which is 
available to only a small number of pupils. 

8. Variety of offerings in larger schools. Schools having ten or 
more teachers should provide all of the types of instruction and 
training described under the heading, "Essentials of Secondary 
School Opportunities", except in cities, where agricultural instruc- 
tion is not demanded. The larger the school, the more varied are 
the types of practical arts instruction that should be provided. 

9. Deficiencies in the fundamental .subjects. Many pupils on 
entering high school are found to be deficient in arithmetic, penman- 
ship, spelling, or language. Where these deficiencies are marked, 
drill should be provided to overcome the weakness. No pupil should 
be graduated from high school whose arithmetic, spelling, penman- 
ship, or language is noticeably weak. No credit should be given for 
such drill work. Pupils thus deficient in the fundamental processes 
on entering high school may reasonably be expected to spend more 
than four years in the school. 

10. Music for all pupils. In general, the instruction in music 
will be in the form of chorus singing. This should find a place in 
every school. Wherever possible, organized courses should be offered 
for which academic credit should be given. It is particularly de- 
sirable that a school have an orchestra. Such an organization is 
of great value both for the school and for the individual participants. 
Valuable suggestions for such an organization are given in the sylla- 
bus in music. 

11. Organisation for succeeding term. The organization of the 
school for the succeeding term should be completed before the close 
of any given term. It is particularly important that the organiza- 
tion for the fall term should be completed before the close of the 
spring term. Delay in beginning the actual work invites tardy re 
turn of pupils and tends to demoralize the school. 

This organization should include: 

1. A roster or daily program showing the time and place of all 
classes. 

2. A copy of the roster showing the assignments to each teacher 

3. An individual assignment card for each teacher. 

4. An individual roster card, showing the daily program for each 
pupil. This card should be made in duplicate, one for the office and 
one officially stamped for the pupil, which shall serve as an admis 
sion card to his several classes. 

5. A list of courses that could be taught by each teacher in case 
of emergency requiring readjustment of the roster of the school. 



43 

6. A list of all books and supplies needed at the beginning of the 
new term. 

7. A record of books or supplies retained by teachers or pupils 
for use during vacation. 

8. A complete record of the work of every pupil for the preceding 
term. 

In a small or medium-sized school, this material should be placed 
in the hands of the superintendent or the secretary of the board of 
directors before the close of the spring term. 

12. A marking system. (The marking system of the school should 
be based on a scale using letters rather than figures. It is not poss 
ible to give ratings in which are recorded discriminations as minute 
as are indicated, for example, by <»!> and 70 per cent. The rating 
scale should indicate three or four degrees of excellence in passing 
marks and one failing mark. 

Pupils' scholarship records should not be lowered as a punishment 
for misconduct. 

The rating given a pupil at the end of the term should represent 
the teacher's estimate of the pupil's mastery of the subject, and if 
the subject is a continuous one, of his ability to do the work of the 
succeeding term. In rating pupils the quality of daily recitations, 
<>f short unannounced tests, of written papers, and of final examin- 
ations, if any are given, should all receive consideration. The con- 
sensus of opinion of the best authorities is that too minute daily 
marking and a reliance upon any mathematical averages is wasteful 
of time and misleading from the standpoint of the aims of instruc- 
tion. 

In general, the distribution of the number of pupils receiving the 
various ratings of the scale should be fairly constant. Given the 
ratings A, B, C, I), E, in descending series with E denoting failure, 
the distribution of the class would generally be something like the 
following: A— 5 to 10% ; B— 20 to 25%; C— 50% ; D— 20 to 25%; 
E — 3 to 10%. Most authorities agree that if the course is well 
planned and the instruction efficient, the percentage of failures 
should be considerably below 10^. 

13. Homogeneous classification of pupils. The boys and girls 
who are enrolled in our high schools show marked individual differ- 
ences. Some have better health and more physical energy and vi- 
tality than others. Some come from homes where the value of school 
work is appreciated, and have parents who encourage them to ma ! -e 
their best effort, in this work, while in other cases home influences 
actually handicap pupils in their educational as well as moral de 
velopment. Some pupils come to high school with records of ele 
mentary school work that are excellent. Others have records that 



44 

are far from satisfactory. Marked differences in mental qualities 
are always present; not only differences in general intelligence and 
ability to do school work, but also in special kinds of ability and in 
temperament and disposition. 

In recent years mental tests have been developed rapidly. They 
make it possible to measure some of these differences in the boys 
and girls in our high schools. There are group tests which may be 
given to a number of pupils at once, much as we give examinations 
in arithmetic or history, and individual tests for more intensive work 
with single pupils. The majority of the mental tests available 
measure more or less accurately the general intelligence, or all- 
round ability of the pupils tested. These tests have three principal 
functions in high school work as follows: 

1. For surveys 

2. For classification of pupils 

3. For study of individuals 

These mental tests may be used as part of a survey. A principal 
may wish to compare the work of his school with that of other high 
schools, or that of one class with another, or the results of one 
teacher's work with another's. Unless he has some measure of the 
general ability or intelligence of the pupils in the two schools or 
classes he can not properly make comparisons in regard to the work 
they are doing. For statistical work of this kind the group tests 
will be used, and little attention will be given to the scores of in- 
dividual pupils. 

Schools have been classifying their pupils by the slow and dis- 
couraging process of non-promotion. Pupils who fail to be promoted 
are usually required to repeat the work of the previous term. We, 
therefore, find older and duller boys and girls in classes with young- 
er and brighter children. It is becoming possible to classify these 
pupils much more intelligently and far less wastef ully by the use of 
mental tests. In larger schools sections can be organized on a basis 
of homogeneous grouping according to ability in a specific subject. 
Thus seventy-five pupils in second year English would be divided 
into three groups according to ability rather than according to an 
alphabetic arrangement of names. In this way the school work re- 
quired of the several groups can be adapted to their different 
abilities. The pupils of the brighter group need not fall into care- 
less habits of study, while those of the duller group do not become 
discouraged by having to repeat work which they have had before. 
Even where classes are small, division is desirable wherever it can 
be made without unduly increasing the number of class sections. 
This classification makes possible adjustment of content, method of 
teaching, and rate of progress to group capacities and prevents 
wasteful repeating. In smaller schools where it is not feasible to 



45 

divide pupils into separate classes according to abilities, the teacher 
nevertheless will find it of marked advantage to have, say, a three - 
fold grouping of the pupils in a single class that will make possible 
some adaptation of the materials and methods of instruction to the 
varying abilities of the pupils. 

Any classification of pupils should be reconsidered frequently, and 
any pupil should be transferred from one group to another without 
waiting for regular promotion periods as soon as it appears that he 
can find better educational opportunities elsewhere. 

No study of individual pupils is complete that does not take into 
account some of these measures of mental qualities. Group test 
results have some significance. Results of individual tests, like the 
Binet Simon scale, have still more. Still more dependence may be 
placed on the findings of a person trained in clinical psychology who 
will use a number of different individual tests in this mental analysis 
and will also take into account other facts in regard to the pupil, 
his physical condition, home surroundings, etc. 

14. Interpretation of tests. Principals and teachers should be 
careful not to overestimate the significance of a single pupil's score 
in a group test. 

Generally speaking, high scores are significant of superior natural 
ability. Scores below average may be due to a number of causes. 
In any case other data must be considered in interpreting these re- 
sults and in the educational guidance of the pupil. Among these 
data are the reports of the medical examiner and the visiting teacher. 
The pupil's previous school history should be considered. The co- 
operation of parents should be secured. Test scores, whether in 
group tests or in individual examinations, should never be the only 
basis of judgment. 

Still less should those without training in clinical psychology give 
out statements in regard to mental deficiency. Much harm can be 
done in this way. The problem of the school is a practical one. What 
is the best use that can be made of the time a given pupil will spend 
in school is the primary question. It can be answered satisfactorily 
only by making use of all the information available in each case. 

Principals should frankly recognize that the use of mental tests 
in high school administration is in an experimental stage. Doubt- 
less both the high school and the college will make an increasing 
use of tests as a basis for curriculum and vocational guidance and 
for the progressive modification of curriculums and courses of study. 
The Department of Public Instruction will welcome reports on uses 
of tests and will render assistance in experiments wherever possible. 

15. The delegation of administrative duties. Proper administra- 
tion of a school makes it necessary for the principal to delegate 
many executive duties and responsibilities to clerical assistants and 



4G 

teachers. In a larger school, an assistant principal or executive 
secretary is necessary in order that the principal may be so relieved 
of petty details as to become a real leader in the educational and 
social life of the school. (This delegation of responsibilities can be 
best effected by a clear definition of a function and by the delegation 
of full responsibility for it to the member of the staff best qualified 
to meet the responsibility. After such responsibility has been dele- 
gated, the principal should keep in touch with the function through 
his appointee and should make any desirable changes in its manage- 
ment through the appointee rather than by direct personal interfer- 
ence. 

This plan of organization insures continuity to these functions 
in case of the principal's absence, and leaves him free to devise 
policies and plans for the growth of the school. It is becoming 
generally recognized that a well-organized school should be able to 
run successfully during any necessary absence of its principal. 

Schools will vary greatly in the functions delegated to individual 
teachers or committees. Among the functions that may profitably 
be so delegated in a large school are some or all of the following: 

Guidance program of the school 

Supervision of preparation for college and normal schools 

Making of roster 

Management of Kbrary 

Management of senior class affairs 

Management of commencement exercises 

Management of lunch room 

Management of boys' athletics 

Management of girls' athletics 

Management of school paper 

Management of lecture and entertainment course 

Management of student participation in school government 

Special attention to first-year pupils 

Social activities of faculty 

Professional activities of faculty 

16. Physical examinations. Every pupil should have a thorough 
physical examination at least once a year. A permanent record of 
this examination should be kept. < orrective exercises should be 
given in the school gymnasium in cases needing such treatment. 

17. The standard requirement for pupils. A pupil of normal 
ability should be required to carry approximately twenty periods of 
recitations requiring preparation outside of class or in a supervised 
study period, and approximately five periods of work requiring no 
outside preparation. The prepared work may be made up of five 
subjects with four recitations per week, or four subjects with five 
recitation periods per week. In either case, the time spent in 
recitation for a year should be not less than 120 sixty -minute hours. 



17 

18. Teaching how to study. Some of the time of the recitations 
in each subject should be devoted to instruction in the best methods 
;!' study. Experiments with supervised study should be encouraged. 

19. Foreign I nguages. Pupils should not be permitted to be- 
gin more than one foreign language in any year. Pupils who take a 
foreign language should study it at least two years unless it becomes 
evident that they can not profit by the study of any foreign language. 
Pupils should not be permitted to drop one language for the purpose 
of taking another without excellent reasons. The larger schools 
should oiler four years' work in Latin and in each of one, two. or 
three modern languages. Only in exceptional cases should any pupil 
take more than one foreign language. More than four units of 
foreign language throw a pupil's curriculum out of proportion as 
badly as a similar over-emphasis on science, mathematics, or social 
studies. 

20. Flexibility of administration. Inasmuch as the high school 
is recognized as a place of testing as well as of training, its program 
of studies should be administered with great flexibility. Cur 
riculums are schematic organizations of the various units of subject 
matter, each leading to a definite goal. A pupil should not, how- 
ever, be held to the continued pursuit of a curriculum he has chosen 
if there is a clear indication that he has made an unwise choice. 
Through the guidance program of the school, the principal should 
encourage changes of the curriculum which seem likely to afford 
better service to individual pupils. 

21. Honest work should he required. The desirability of adapt- 
ing the school to the needs of individuals should never be accepted 
as an excuse for a lack of effort on the part of pupils or for an aim- 
less shifting from subject to subject merely to get out of work. 
Habits of laziness and evasion may come either from forced continu- 
ance at subjects wlhich pupils believe to be useless to them or from 
failure of the school to insist on thorough work. Nothing is more 
needed in secondary education today than a determined concentra- 
tion upon the requirement that all pupils make an honest and sus- 
tained effort at some worthwhile educational task. There is good 
reason to believe that a pupil who refuses to make such an honest 
effort in the high school will be better served in both instruction and 
discipline by the stern necessity of self support. Teachers and par- 
ents should frankly face the individual problems of this kind that 
arise in every school and should cooperate in setting up conditions 
that will promote the formation of right habits and sound character. 

The tendency to permit to adolescents too great freedom in the use 
of automobiles, too frequent and expensive dances and parties, too 
much spending money, and unprecedented extravagance in dress is 



48 

a serious menace to the work of the school and to the formation of 
right habits by the pupils. The high school is a representative in- 
stitution of democracy, and as such it may easily be tempted to con- 
done practices sanctioned by the groups it serves. It is clearly the 
duty of boards of education, superintendents, principals, and teach- 
ers to use all of their personal and professional influence and au- 
thority to secure that earnestness of effort which will develop right 
habits and incidentally reduce the great evil of high school failures. 
If citizens and school officials will unite in correcting these excesses 
that appeal so strongly to high school boys and girls, the service of 
the school will be enhanced and the interests of the young people 
safeguarded. 

22. Scholarship honors. The practice of awarding the honor of 
salutatorian and valedictorian on a basis of class standing during 
the course is open to various objections. As noted in No. 12, the 
numerical rating should be abandoned. This will make the award 
of such honors extremely difficult. The award of these honors is 
almost inevitably unfair, because the standards of marking vary 
with different teachers and different 'subjects, and competition for 
these honors may tempt pupils to shape their curriculums with a 
view to honors rather than to the greatest benefit they may receive. 
Competition for honors, moreover, appeals to an undesirable motive 
■ind promotes unsocial attitudes on the part of the pupils. 

As a substitute for the valedictory and salutatory honors, a school 
may establish an honor group to contain every pupil who obtains 
A or B in at least twelve units of work . This plan will lead to the 
substitution of a spirit of emulation and friendly and helpful co- 
operation instead of one of antagonistic competition. 

The National Association of High School Principals has devised 
an honor system for high schools that the Department of Public 
Instruction heartily recommends to the schools of the State which 
are anxious to include such a system. 

23. Finances of school activities. Special care must be exercised 
in handling the funds incident to the various activities of school 
publications, entertainments, athletics, etc. A member of the fac- 
ulty, delegated to this responsibility, should have custody of all funds, 
and should make regular and frequent report concerning them to the 
faculty and the student body. Expenditure of funds raised through 
pupil activities should be initiated in the pupil council, and be sub- 
ject to the veto of the principal. 

24. The high school building and grounds. The Bureau of 
School Buildings of the Department of Public Instruction will gladly 



49 

advise boards of directors Who are contemplating the erection or 
remodeling of buildings. 

A few points that should receive particularly careful consideration 
in planning for new buildings are: 

1. Location. Generally speaking, it is better to locate a high 
school building outside the built-up center of a community. A walk 
of a mile or even more is not injurious to high school pupils. Tt is 
particularly important that the building be removed from the noise 
of trains and trolleys. 

2 Ample grounds. If the high school is to be the center of the 
recreational life of the boys and girls of a community, it must have 
ample space for football and baseball fields, tennis courts, and track. 
The provision of several acres of ground in the immediate vicinity 
of the school is highly desirable wherever possible. It is economical 
also to provide room for additions to the building. 

3. Essential features. In addition to the usual offices, class- 
rooms and science laboratories, every high school building should 
include an auditorium as large as can be afforded, a library 
to accommodate at least ten per cent of the maximum capacity of 
tfhe school, suitable rooms for instruction in commercial subjects, 
shops for the practical and industrial arts, cooking and sewing 
laboratories, a lunch room, a gymnasium, a swimming-pool, and if 
possible a suite of rooms for use as a model house keeping apartment. 

25. The high school library. Every high school should have a 
library properly catalogued and freely used for reference. Pro- 
vision should be made to supply the library from time to time with 
books that are needed in the various subjects, and for instructing 
pupils in their use. All library assignments should be definite. 
The adequacy of the library and the use that is made of it will be a 
strong factor in determining the classification of the schools. 

A minimum of five recitation periods a year should be given to 
graded instruction in the use of reference books, indexes, decimal 
classification and dictionary cataloging. It should be given by the 
school librarian if there is one, and should be a distinct requirement 
for graduation. This instruction should be given to class groups 
in the various subjects. An outline of such courses is given in the 
School Library Manual. 

Junior high schools. There should be a general library of at least 
300 volumes selected with reference to the age and needs of junior 
high sdhool pupils. At least 100 of these should be bought each 
year. 



50 

Third grade high schools. There should be a general library of 
not less than 400 volumes for pupils of high school age. At least 
100 of these should be bought each year. 

Second grade high schools. There should be a general library of 
not less than 500 volumes for pupils of high school age. At least 
125 of these should be bought each year. 

First grade high schools. There should be a general library of 
well selected books, for pupils of high school age, of not less than 600 
volumes. At least 150 volumes of these should be bought each year. 

The books for school libraries should be selected from the School 
Library Manual. The books should be properly marked, classified, 
and arranged in a case or library room with sufficient shelving to 
make each book accessible. 

Textbooks and sets of supplementary readers should not be con- 
sidered as library books. 

26. Qualifications of librarians. Schools having an enrollment of 
100-300 pupils should have a part-time teacher librarian who is a 
graduate of a teacher -librarian course in one of the State normal 
schools. 

Schools having an enrollment of 300-500 pupils should have a full 
time librarian who is a graduate of a teacher-librarian course in one 
of the State normal schools. 

Schools having an enrollment of 500-1,000 pupils should have a 
full time librarian who should meet the State requirements for 
certification of high school teachers, and in addition should have 
had at least a six weeks' course in library methods in an approved 
summer library school. 

Schools with an enrollment of 1,000 pupils or over, should have a 
full-time librarian who should meet the State requirements for cer- 
tification of high school teachers, and inaddition should have had 
library training in an approved library school, and at least one year's 
successful library experience in work with young people in a library 
of standing. 

27. Records. Permanent records of the attendance of pupils and 
cf the result of all instruction should be kept. Unforeseen needs 
for such records often arise many years after the pupil has left 
school, and great injustice is done when accurate records are not 
available. 

The care of the permanent records is another matter to which 
superintendents and principals should give special attention. In 
sonic of the smaller high schools, especially, the record is placed 



51 

where everybody can have access to it. Frequently the records are 
found on the library shelf among- the library books. The records 
should be kept in a place where no one but the superintendent, 
principal, or some person especially entrusted with the care of same 
can have access to it. In many of the smaller towns a good plan is 
to have the secretary of the board keep the records in a bank vault or 
some safe place other than the schoolhouse during the summer 
vacation. 



52 



53 



V. THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 

Organization and program of studies. 

Purpose of the junior lrigh school. The junior high school has 
arisen because of the demand, which is constantly growing more and 
more insistent, that* our public schools should provide greater 
equality of educational opportunity. We are beginning to see that 
a successful democracy must depend not only upon the education 
of its people, but also upon types of education adapted to individual 
needs. We are now realizing more and more that individuals are 
not alike and that the education and training wuku is suited to one 
may not be suited to another. Unfortunately, our educational 
system has been and still is based very largely upon the principle 
that individuals are alike and that all can profit equally by a com- 
mon course of training. It has not been .possible to modify suf- 
ficiently the eight-year type of organization so that the varying needs 
of individuals can be met. The results of this failure are seen in the 
appalling elimination of pupils from school. 

The Commission's recommendations. The following quotations 
are extracts from the bulletin on "Cardinal Principles of Secondary 
Education", one of the reports so far published by the Commission 
on the Reorganization of Secondary Education: 

"We recommend a reorganization of the school system whereby the first 
six years shall be devoted to elementary education designed to meet the needs 
of pupils of approximately six to twelve years of age ; and the second six 
years to secondary education designed to meet the needs of pupils of ep 
proximately twelve to eighteen years of age. 

In the junior period (grades seven to nine inclusive) emphasis should be 
placed upon the attempt to help the pupil to explore his own aptitudes and 
to make at least provisional choice of the kinds of work to which he will 
devote himself. In the senior period (grades ten to twelve inclusive) em- 
phasis should be given to training in the fields thus chosen. This distinc- 
tion lies at the basis of the organization of junior and senior high schools." 

-L new type of school. The junior high school should, therefore, 
undertake a reorganization of the work of the last two grades of 
the elementary school together with the first year or the first two 
years of the high school. These three or four grades can best be 
organized as a more or less separate unit. They pre-suppose that 
the. chief objects of elementary education shall be attained largely 
in the first six grades of the elementary school. Basing its work 
upon the assumption that the fundamentals in reading, writing, and 
arithmetic have been reasonably well attained and that certain 
elementary and fundamental concepts in geography and history 



54 

have been formed, it provides for a varied program better suited to 
the developing needs of young people. Further command of the 
fundamental operations is obtained not so much by continued formal 
drill as by practical application of the operations already learned. 

In addition, subjects formerly considered the exclusive property of 
the four-year high schools are given a [dace. Among these are 
elementary science, general mathematics, community and vocational 
civics, practical arts, home economics; and as exploratory and 
elective subjects, foreign languages and commercial branches. 
Promotion is by subjects instead of by grades, and the work is to a 
greater or less extent departmentalized. The methods used are 
radically different from those of the elementary schools ; e g., super- 
vised study and the socialized recitation are essential features, and 
the social life of the school is organized from the standpoint of the 
young adolescent. This reorganization removes the dangerous break 
at the end of the eighth year, coordinates the elementary school with 
the high school by a transitional unit to weld together the elementary 
and secondary periods, and provides a new organization in which it 
is far easier to meet the many needs of adolescent pupils than under 
the old plan. 

• 

Advantages in small communities. An adaptation of this plan of 

organization is especially well suited to rural communities where 
the number of high school pupils is small. In many of these com- 
munities it. is now impossible to maintain any kind of high school. 
In others, small third grade or second grade high schools maintain 
a precarious existence. In many of these the conditions are any- 
thing but conducive to good work. The small schools require each 
teacher to teach a much wider range of subjects than anyone is likely 
to be able to do well. Even at that, there is usually no opportunity 
for choice of work. This condition results practically in the denial 
of all educational opportunity for the pupils who can not profit by 
the single curriculum that is offered. 

The organization of a junior high school consists of the seventh 
to the ninth years or the seventh to the tenth years inclusive. The 
former, wherever practicable and economical, is recommended. How- 
ever, the latter is recommended under certain conditions: 

•'In sparsely settled communities when: a senior high school can not be main- 
tained effectively, the junior high school may well be four years in length, 
so that the pupils may attend school nearer to their homes for one more 
year." ("Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education.") 

In many communities that are remote from larger schools it is al- 
together likely that a junior high school of three or four years 
would grow naturally into a six-year high school. The opportunity 
for a try-out of various types of educational activity inevitably leads 



55 

to a retention of many pupils who would otherwise leave school. 
Moreover, successful experience will encourage a community to in- 
vest in still further opportunities. All of this tends to develop con- 
fidence in the school and to promote its growth. 

A wisely planned program of studies. A word of warning should 
he given. Unless the new organization does actually provide better 
for the varying individual needs of adolescent, boys and girls, there is 
no virtue in a change of name. To provide against such a con- 
tingency, the Department of Public Instruction will scrutinize very 
carefully every plan for such an organization before it gives its ap- 
proval. The programs of studies of junior high schools will neces- 
sarily vary with the different local needs and conditions. In order 
to give help to those who wish to organize such schools a general out- 
line of an acceptable program of studies is given below. Principals 
and superintendents are urged to send to the Department suggestions 
regarding desirable adaptations of the suggested program of studies. 
These will receive careful consideration. 

The junior high school program of studies should be a resultant of 
several forces. It should be made up of four parts; first, a continu- 
ation of the elementary school curriculum, in the form of a review 
and amplification of these courses with a purpose of articulating 
the elementary and secondary courses; second, a preview of second- 
ary school courses of study, with a rearrangement of such courses 
in their "simpler aspects, deferring the refinements" to later senior 
high school years; third, a prevocational content from the point of 
view of the industrial and commercial fields and from that of the 
home; and fourth, a liberal amount of social scien e materials and 
social and civic activities to the end of giving to the early adolescent 
a "self-conscious social adjustment." 

In each course of study in the junior high school program of 
studies there must be a thorough internal reorganization of the pre- 
ceding courses of study in the given subject as these courses were 
formerly organized for the last two years of the grammar school and 
the first year of the high school. No mere physical combination of 
grades seven and eight and the first year of high school with un- 
changed courses of study can even pretend to the reorganization of 
the program of studies which is the most distinctive characteristic of 
an actual junior high school. Such an organization can in some 
cases effect most desirable improvements by a new grouping of grades 
seven, eight, and nine with an administrative change to depart- 
mentalization, but it is not a junior high school. The junior high 
school is a "chemical product, not a physical combination." 

Therefore, a wisely planned program of studies should continue, 
with modifications, the sinyle curia •ulm of the elementarv school. 



56 

Through its general courses of study (general mathematics, general 
science, prevocational courses, general social science, etc.), it should 
expand the single curriculum into an enriched and varied curriculum. 
The new resultant should in a gradually increasing degree become 
the initial stage of all secondary school curriculums. It should be- 
come the source of an apperceptive basis for later senior high school 
courses; it should "reveal higher types of activities, make these both 
desired and to an extent possible." It should offer assurance of in- 
telligent educational choice and wise educational placement. It 
should make possible a tentative or provisional choice of electives. 
It should increase the probability that pupils will persist through the 
initial stages of specialized secondary school courses in the junior 
high school and thus also increase the probability that they will con- 
tinue these courses and complete the specialized curriculums of 
the senior high school. 

For those of the junior high school pupils who will not continue 
into the senior high school, the self-contained program of studies 
should provide a valuable educational return. For the drop-outs, 
therefore, every reorganized course of study should become a unit 
course of definite educational value in each year of its development. 
The same unit organization of the courses of study, with a continuous 
preservation of life contacts, convinces the pupils who will continue 
of the real value of the present units of the course. At the same time 
it reveals to them the higher possibilities of advanced units of the 
course and makes these desirable in the estimation of pupils and 
parents. 

The enacting clause in the educational reorganization inherent in 
the junior high school is a new, reorganized, self-contained program 
of studies ; thus only can the junior high school become a new 
educational force for the realization of its accepted and distinctive 
purposes. 

A suitable apportionment of time. It is recommended that there 
should be a school year of at least nine months, a school day of six 
hours exclusive of the luncheon period and passage of classes, and 
six one-hour periods. Four of the periods are devoted, to a large 
degree, to the four major subjects (1) language, (2) mathematics, 
(3) social studies, (4) science and geography, and health instruction. 
A fifth period is devoted to fine and practical arts and guidance. 
The sixth period is divided into a fifteen-minute period for devotional 
or opening exercises at the beginning of the morning session and a 
forty-five minute period for organized school activities at times of 
the day best suited to each school. 

In smaller schools, the sixth period may be required in part for the 
practical working out of the daily roster of the curricular require- 



57 

uients. The guidance work could be part of the home-room activities. 
There should be, if possible, a weekly assembly. However, it may be 
necessary to alternate assemblies with clubs or class meetings in con- 
nection with pupil participation in school control. The minimum 
time allotment in any school for organized activities should be two 
periods a week, as given above. The maximum would be live periods, 
four for pupil activities and one for faculty activities as given in the 
chapter on school activities of this manual. The balance of the sixth 
period may be devoted to one period a week for coaching or for work 
in spelling, penmanship, practical arts, or for any curricular require- 
ments not provided for in the other five periods. 

A transition school. The program of studies is shown by suc- 
cessive terms to give a clearer conception of the development from 
the single curriculum of the elementary school through the ex- 
ploratory courses and the core curriculum with electives of the 
junior high school to the multiple or differentiated curriculums of 
the senior high school. 

It must be clearly recognized that the junior high school is pri- 
marily a transition school. With other features of organization and 
administration, the program of studies must contribute to this 
fundamental ipfurpose. Attention is, therefore, called to the progres- 
sive stages in effecting for early adolescent children the transition 
from the elementary school to the senior high school. To this end, 
the three-year period is divided into four stages, as follows: 

1. A term of adjustment — low seventh. The single curriculum of 
the elementary school is continued, but in a form modified by de- 
partmentalization and by the increased facilities of the junior high 
school. 

2. A year of exploration and preview — high seventh and low 
eighth. The single or core curriculum of constants is required of all 
pupils but in a form enriched and varied by exploratory courses 
which offer a preview of high school subjects. 

3. A term of provisional choice of electives — high eighth. The 
core curriculum is continued with the first and provisional choice 
of electives. In this semester, the future educational placement of 
each pupil is to a large degree determined by this initial experience 
with specialized or differentiated courses of study. The initial 
choice should remain provisional for at least one semester to provide 
for correction of error in the original choice. 

4. A year of persistence through electives — ninth year. The pro- 
gram of studies now becomes a core curriculum with electives, or, in 
other words, a constant-with-variables curriculum, or partially 



58 

differentiated curriculums. This final year should be devoted to 
stimulating the ambition of each pupil for educational advancement 
into the next higher type of school. The ninth year is the initial 
stage of partial differentiation preparatory to the multiple cur- 
riculums of the senior high school and higher institutions. 

The sixty-minute period. The program of studies is adapted to 
a six-hour school day and a school year of at least nine months. It 
is also arranged on a basis of sixty-minute periods for the purpose 
largely of providing for supervised or directed study. A six-hour 
school day should not be followed by more than a very limited amount 
of home study in grades seven and eight. 

In grade nine, supervised study can be applied in five-period-a- 
week subjects since three fourths credit for high school units is allow- 
ed where supervised study is in operation. 

There are only two ninth year courses, viz.. social studies and 
science, to which are allotted four periods a week. Though the total 
clock hours for the year fall below one hundred and twenty on the 
directed study basis, one unit :redit will be allowed. The work in 
guidance, civics, and science of the seventh and eighth years offsets 
the diminished time allotment in the ninth year. 

Pupil load. The program of studies is based upon a load for each 
pupil of seventeen or eighteen periods of prepared work a week in the 
seventh and eighth years, and nineteen periods in the ninth. 

Adaptation of program to small school. The suggested program 
of studies can be applied to both small and large schools. An adapta- 
tion to a four-year junior high school is offered for the rural com- 
munity school. There is also given a typical daily program for a 
four-teacher organization. This should demonstrate the practica- 
bility of the program of studies in the small school. 

Where facilities in the smaller school are lacking for practical arts, 
agriculture, and home economics, a temporary classification will be 
given, on condition that the school directors will provide such facili- 
ties in the following school year. Blue prints are available upon 
request, showing a floor plan for the use of a class-room as an indus- 
trial arts shop. Suggestions will also be made upon request as to 
the minimum equipment necessary to inaugurate practical arts for 
girls and boys in a small school. The smaller schools should restrict 
electives to the needs of the majority of the pupils. The natural 
limitations in number of teachers, equipment, and facilities will be 
considered in connection with requests from small schools for classi- 
fication. As a general principle, the Department will not approve 
ihe expansion of a four-year junior high school into a six-year high 
school unless additions are made to the number of teachers and the 



59 

school facilities. Otherwise, the effectiveness of the junior high 
school will be defeated by the additional burden of the eleventh and 
twelfth years. 

Step by step change in curriculum type. It should be noted that 
the single curriculum type prevails in the seventh year and the low 
eighth term; that exploratory courses are required of all pupils in 
the high seventh and low eighth ; that beginning with the high eighth 
and continuing through the ninth year a core curriculum with elec- 
tives is suggested. 

Occupational training. Occupational training for pupils who must 
drop out of school during or at the close of the junior high school 
period Avil be largely restricted to the commercial, industrial or 
agricultural courses. These courses are, therefore, introduced at as 
early a point in the curriculum as is consistent with the underlying 
purposes of the junior high school. 

Special rosters in the smaller schools or partially differentiated 
curriculums in the larger schools should be offered to drop-outs at 
the end of the seventh year or at any subsequent semester. The ut- 
most "are must be observed that only the small residuum of pupils 
who must drop out are classified in the group for occupational train- 
ing. 

Vocational value of ability in English. Secretarial or stenographic 
positions demand a high order of ability in English. It is suggested, 
therefore, that in the exploratory year one period or an average of 
one period a week of English work be devoted to determining the 
individual's fluency and clearness of expression range of vocabulary, 
and exactness in the technicalities of language, spelling, and penman- 
ship. 

Choice of electives. At the close of the low eighth semester, or at 
the middle of the three-year period, all pupils should, under careful 
guidance based upon thorough scrutiny of exploratory experiences, 
make provisional choice of electives for the high eighth semester. 

For the sake of pupils whose initial choice of electives proves to 
be a mistake, an easy way of changing to other electives should be 
provided. This can be done in several ways — by postponing certain 
requirements for promotion to the middle of the ninth year, by ar- 
ranging special rosters, by coaching, or by other opportunities to 
catch up with the work of the class in the new elective. 



60 



A Suggested Program of Studies. 



Six 

period 

day- 


















Sixty 

minute 

period 


Adjustment 




Exploration 


& Preview 




Provls. Choice 




Persistence 


One Term 
Low Seventh 




One Year 
High Seventh, Low Eighth 




one Term 
High Eighth 


One Year 
Ninth Year 








Constants 

« 










•English (a)t 


5 


*English (a) 


4 


•English (a) 


4 


•English (a) 


4 


•English ft 


•Gen. Math, (b) 


4 


*Gen. Math.(b) 


4 


*Gen. Math.(b) 


4 


(Opt. in Math.)(b) 


(Opt. 


in Math.)(b) 


*Soc. Stu. (c) 


4 


*Soc. Stu. (c) 


4 


*Soc. Stu. (d) 


3 


•Soc. Stu. (d) 


3 


*Soc. 


Stu. (h) 1 
Sel. (h)J 


* Science (e) 
•Geography (e) 


*> 
3 


"Science (e) 
•Geography (e) 


2 

3 


•Science (f) 
•Geography (f) 


2 

2 


•Science (g) 


2 


*Gen 


Health (1) 


2 


Health (1) 


2 


Health (i) 


2 


Health (i) 


2 


Health (1) 2 


Ind. Arts (J) ) 
Agri. (J) \ 
HomeBc. (J) J 


2 


Ind. Arts (k) 1 
Agri. (k) \ 
Home Ec. (k) ) 


3 


Ind. Arts (J)l 
Agri. (j) [ 
HomeEc. (j) J 


2 


Ind. Arts (J) 1 
Agri. (J) \ 
HomeEc. (j) j 


2 


Ind. Arts (j) 1 
Agri. (j) [ 2 
HomeEc. (J) J 


Music (1) 


1 


Music (1) 


1 


Music (1) 


1 


Music (1) 


1 


Music (1) 1 


Art (1) 


1 


Art (1) 


1 


Art (1) 


1 


Art (1) 


1 Art 


(1) 1 


Guidance (m) 


1 


Guidance (m) 


1 


Guidancp (in) 
*Jr. Bus. Train- 


1 


Guidance (m) 


1 




Sen. ActiT. (o) 


5 


Sen. Activ. (o) 


5 


ing (n) 
Sch. Activ. (o) 


3 

5 


Snh. Activ. (o) 


5 Sch. 


A.ctlT. (o) 5 








Klectives 




(p) Elect One Group (q) 


t Letters refer 


to 


notes below 






•Gen. Math.(b) 
•For. Lang, (r) 


4 


•Gen 
•For. 


Math, (b) 5 
Lang, (s) 6 


* Prepared work 










*Gen. Math.(b) 


5 


•Gen 


Math, (b) 5 



Fine Arts Courses : Fine Arts Courses : 
Music or Art (t) 4 Music or Art (t) 5 

•Com. Math. & *Com. Math. & 

Com. Geog. (u) 4 Typewrit, (w) ft 
*.Tr. Bus. Trg. *Bookkeep. & 

& Bus. Writ, (v) 5 Bus. Writ, (x) 5 

*Gen. Math, (b) 5 *Gen. Math, (b) 5 
Ind. Arts. 1 *Gen. Sel. (z) 5 

Agri. V 4 

Home He. (y) J Vocational 

1/2 Time (aa) 15 

a. Including spelling and penmanship and one period a month for library in- 
struction. One or two periods of time allotted to school activities could be used 
for spelling, penmanship, and library instruction. Until the school activities are 
fully in operation, it is desirable that this additional time be retained for the 
English course. 

b. See Report of National Committee on Mathematical Requirements, Bulletin. 
1921, No. 32, Bureau of Education, Washington. In the high eighth, and ninth 
year, there is an option in mathematics but no option of mathematics. Either 
general mathematics or the mathematics of the commercial curriculum are required 
of all groups. 

c. United States history, — or United States history and community civics. 

d. Community civics, — or United States history and community civics. 

e. Science two periods and geography three periods. 

f. Science two periods and geography tw© periods. 

g. Science two periods. 

h. All pupils, except those electing commercial courses, are required to take 



61 

vocational and economic civics or general social science. Commercial pupils are re- 
quired to take general science — their later commercial courses will contain much of 
economic civics. A minimum of science will be required in the academic curriculum 
of the senior high school ; general science, therefore, should be postponed to the 
tenth year for the academic group. General social science should be required of all 
groups in the ninth year except as indicated for the commercial group. 
i. Personal hygiene, gymnasium, directed games, etc. 

j. General shop with progressive course of wood-working and metal working 
through three years. Agriculture optional with industrial arts for rural schools. 
Home economics including sewing, cooking, textiles, laundry, millinery, dressmaking, 
dress and home design, and home training. 

k. All boys for one term given an actual trade shop experience in a special 
trade type of shop equipment. The vocational side of practical arts stressed for 
one term for both boys and girls. Hence increase of time to three periods. 

1. Additional time for fine arts may be provided by electing special work in 
school activities time, e. g., orchestra, glee, and musical instrument clubs, design and 
art clubs, musical or art appreciation clubs, etc. It is advised that the time allot- 
ment of sixty minutes be undivided for art and divided into two thirty-minute 
periods for music. 

m. Classroom instruction in educational or curriculum guidance — both educa- 
tional and vocational information for pupils prior to choice of electives. 

n. Elementary business practices and principles common to all life careers 
and a brief survey of commercial education and of junior commercial occupations, 
o. Weekly periods for (1) home-room period, (2) co-operative pupil government. 
(3) school assembly, (4) clubs, (5) faculty activities for professional study — a 
faculty esprit de corps for the cooperative solution of junior high school problems 
of both an administrative and instructional nature. Junior high school teachers 
must be trained through service ; the most favorable condition should be established. 
Until the school activities program is in full operation, part of this daily allotment of 
time for activities should be diverted to English, practical arts, fine arts, or other 
curricular requirements. 

p. Other electives than those listed may be provided in the club activities, 
e. g., art, science, English, dramatics, practical arts, or social service clubs. 
The groups of electives indicate partially differentiated curriculums. To facilitate 
cross-over between electives during this term, it is suggested that electives be made 
provisional, i. e., that promotion requirements in electives be deferred to the 
middle of the ninth year. 

q. Partially differentiated curriculums continued ; with twenty periods devoted 
to constants, fine and practical arts, and activities : and with ten periods devoted 
to electives. There are five major lines of curriculum choice provided in this year, 
viz., the academic, the fine arts, the commercial, the scientific or technical, and the 
vocational. 

r. Optional choice of Latin or one modern language. Small schools should 
restrict choice to one foreign language. Eighth year course introductory — vocabulary 
building, social life of people, etc. Earlier choice of a foreign language for pupils 
of a high I. Q. is a program adjustment to each school. This earlier start of a 
foreign language should be an extension course opportunity in an enriched curriculum 
for special or accelerant groups, 
s. First year high school course. 

t. Provision is made in the chapter on the administration of the program 
of studies for full high school credit for music under specifications set forth in the 
syllabus in music. This option makes it possible for a pupil to begin his music 
with full school credit in the middle of the eighth year. Similarly, a course in art 



62 

may be pursued in districts where provision is made for a unit course in art 
similar to that outlined for music. This course, as in the case of music, may be 
given in or out of the school. 

u. Two periods of each. 

v. Forty minutes daily in junior business training, twenty minutes in business 
writing. 

w. Forty minutes daily in typewriting, twenty minutes in commercial mathe- 
matics. 

x. Forty minutes daily in bookkeeping, twenty minutes in business writing. 

y. Four periods elective plus the two periods required in constants of this term 
give a total of six periods; five should be in special shops or advanced home 
(raining and one in drafting or design. 

z. The fourth group of electives in the high eighth branches off into two 
curriculum choices in the ninth year, viz., first, the scientific or technical curriculum 
paralleling the academic in preparation for higher institutions, and second, the 
vocational or trade curriculum. In the former, general science in the ninth year 
replaces the practical arts elective of the high eighth ; but practical arts is still 
continued for this and all other non-vocational groups to the extent of two periods 
as a required subject. 

aa. Smith-Hughes curriculum organized as a ninth year elective, but over-age 
pupils should be transferred to this curriculum during seventh and eighth years, 
when definitely determined that alternatives of vocational curriculum or leaving 
school are unavoidable. All such transfers are problems of individual adjustment. 
The academic work should include English, social studies, and related mathematics 
for a weekly total of ten periods. These pupils should participate in school activities 
on an equal basis with all others. 



63 

A Suggested Program of Studies For a Rural Community Four-Year 
Junior High School. 5 



Nine 

month 

year 






Six 

hour 

day 










Sixty 

minute 

period 


7th year 




8th year 




9th year 






10th year 


"English 


5 


*English 


4 


* English 




4 


"English 


4 


*Social Studies 


4 


* Social Studies 


3 


"Social Studies 




4 


*Social Studies 


4 


"Mathematics 
*Geo. & Science 


4 
5 


"General Math. 
"Geo. '& Science 


4 

4 


♦General Math, or 
Commercial Math. 
"General Science 


5 


"Geometry or 
Bookkeeping 
"Elective Sci. 


5 
4 


Health Educ. 


2 


Health .Educ. 


2 


Health Edue. 




2 


Health Educ. 


2 


Music 


1 


Music 


1 


Music 




1 


Music- 


1 


Art 


1 


Art 


1 


Art 




1 


Art 


1 


(iuidance 


1 


Guidance 


1 












Agriculture 

Indus. Arts |- 

Home Econ. 


3 


Agriculture 
Indus. Arts 
Home Econ. 


1 3 
J 


Agriculture 
Indus. Arts 
Home Econ. 


1 

J 


2 


Agriculture 
Indus. Arts 
Home Econ. 


1 2 

1 


Activities 


2 


Activities 


2 


Activities 




2 


Activities 


2 


Spelling and Pen- 
manship 


2 


Spelling and Pen 
manship 


2 




One 


elective 








"Jr. Bus. Train 


'g 3 


"Commercial W'k 
or Agriculture 
Indus. Arts 
Home Making 

or 
'Foreign Lan- 
guage 


1 
}- 

J 


4 


"Commercial W 
or Agriculture 
Indus. Arts 
Home Making 

or 
"Foreign Lan- 
guage 


'k 
1 
J 5 

J 


Total periods 


30 


Total periods 


30 


Total periods 




30 


Total periods 


3D 



JFor practical application of this program of studies see the "Typical Daily Program for n 
Junior High School with Four Teachers." 

"Prepared work. 



64 



Typical Daily Program for a Junior High School with Four 
Teachers. Grades 7-8-9-10. 



Per. 


Day Time Principal Lang. Tchr. 


Sc. & Soc. 
Stud. Tchr. 


Math. & Horn? 
Econ. Tchr. 




Home Room 10th 1 Home Room 8th 


Home Room 7th 


1 Home Room 9th 


15 


8:45-9 Devotional or Opening Exercises 







60 M 9-10 
60 Tu 
60 W 
60 Th 

60 F 

60 M 10-11 
60 Tu 
60 W 
60 Th 
60 F 





Alg. 9-10 


English 8 


Soc. Stud. 


7 


Commercial 


9-10 




Alg. 9-10 


English 8 


Geog. & Sc. 


7 


Commercial 


9-10 




Alg. 9-10 


English 8 


Soc. Stud. 


T 


Commercial 


9-10 




Alg. 9-10 


English 8 


Geog. & Sc. 


7 


Commercial 


9-10 




Alg. 9-10 


English 8 


Soc. Stud. 


7 


Commercial 


9-10 



Gen. Sc. 9-10 



English 9-10 
English 9-10 
English 9-10 
Soc. Stud. 
English 9-10 



Soc. Stud. 
Health 
Soc. Stud. 
8 Health 
Soc. Stud. 



8 ! Gen. Math. 

8 J Gen. Math. 

8 Gen. Math. 

8 Gen. Math. 

S Gen. Math. 



60 M 11-12 
60 Tu 
60 W 
60 Th 

60 F 



60 M 
60 Tu 
60 W 
60 Th 

60 F 



60 M 

60 Tu 
60 W 
60 Th 
60 F 



1-2 



2-3 



lnd. Arts or 

Agri. 

Ind. Arts or 

Agri. 

Ind. Arts or 

Agri. 

Ind. Arts or 

Agri. 

Ind. Arts or 

Agri. 



English 7 
English 7 
English 7 
English 7 
English 7 



Soc. Stud. 
Soc. Stud. 
Soc. Stud. 
Soc. Stud. 
Health 



9-10 
9-10. 
9-10 
9-10 
9-10 



Gen. Math. 

Gen. Math. 

Gen. Math. 

Gen. Math. 

Gen. Math. 



For. Lang. 

For. Lang. 

For. Lang. 

For. Lang. 

30 For. Lang. 
30 Music 



9-10, Geog. & Sc. 

9-10 Geog. & Sc. 

9-10J Jeog. & Sc. 
Geog. Sc. or 
9-10 Soc. Stud. 



9-10 Art 

7 'Art 



7 
9-10 



Home Econ. 

Home Econ. 

Home Econ. 

Home Econ. 

Home Econ. 



Gen. Sc. 



9-10 Health 



Ind. Arts or 
Agri. 

Gen. Sc. 



7 
9-10 



Ind. Arts or 
Agri. 7 

Gen. Sc. 9-10 



30 Music 
30 Coaching 



Health 
30 Music 



8 

8 Art 

7 

9-10 

Art 

9-10 Coaching 



9-10 



1st Lessons 
Business 

Home Econ. 
1st Lessons 
Business 

Home Econ. 
1st Lessons 
Business 



45 M 3-3:45 
45 Tu 
45 W 
45 Th 

45 F 



Guidance 9-10 Guidance 8 Guidance 7 

Assembly & clubs on alternate weeks, four teachers participating 

Ind. Arts or 25 Spell. 7-8] 25 

Agri. 9-10 20 Penman. 8 20 Penman. 7 Home Econ. 9-10 

Home Room Home Room Home Room 

Activities & Activities & Activities & 

Coaching 9-10 Coaching 8 Coaching 7| 

Ind. Arts or 25 Spell. 7-8 25 ' Home Econ. 9-10 

Agri. 9-10 20 Penman. 8 20 Penman. 7 



Whenever possible, the practical and fine arts should be taught by part time 
instructors who come to the school for a continuous program of a half-day or 
more in the special subject. Industrial arts, agriculture, home economics, music 
and art will then be taught by the regular teachers only to the extent that these 
subjects are not taught by part time instructors. 

The above program, therefore, represents the maximum organization required of 
any f«ur-teacher school. It is not recommended except when unavoidable. It is 



65 

.submitted only to demonstrate the practicability of the junior high school program 
of studies in a four-teacher organization. 

ESSENTIALS FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL CLASSIFICATION 

Types of organization. Tlie State Department will adopt the gen- 
eral practice prevailing in the country at large of designating a 
junior high school as including grades 7, 8, and 9. 

1. These grades may be segregated as a distinct .school unit, which is recom- 
mended where practicable. 

2. These grades may be included with the 10th- 11th, and Vlx\\ years, forming 
thereby a six-year secondary school unit. This type of organization may be ad- 
visable for smaller cities, boroughs, and larger rural communities because of the 
economy of administration and the reciprocal gains to both junior and senior units. 
These gains arise by reason of the increased total enrollment and the grti.ier 
flexibility consequent to a large organization. 

3. Grades 7-10 may be classified as a junior high school provided the come.sion 
of an existing second or third class high school into a junior high school is depend- 
ent upon this type of organization, and provided, also, that in each ease clear e\ i- 
dence is presented to the Department of the necessity of including the 10th year. 

Where local conditions require that the junior high school be housed 
with grades 1-6, or with any part of the elementary school, one prin 
cipal should exercise administrative control over both the junior high 
and the elementary school. The principal may also exercise super- 
visory control over the elementary .school, if other supervision can- 
not be provided. 

It is strongly recommended that the clear distinction between the 
elementary grades 1-6 and the secondary grades 7-1-!, as established 
by the ''Commission on Reorganization of Secondary Education", 
be accepted as the basis of organization and administration. The 
junior high school must be recognized as the first unit of the second- 
ary school, the six years of which correspond will) the adolescent ages 
of approximately 12 to 18 years. 

Permanent classification. There should be a minimum enrollment 
of 100 pupils antl a faculty of four teachers for the following reasons: 

1. The present unsatisfactory conditions in many second and third class high 
schools, with one or two teachers and a pupil enrollment of 15 to 40 pupils, should 
he avoided in a reorganization on the junior high school basis. 

2. Four teachers will make possible departmentalization in the four major 
branches: (1) English and foreign language. (2) social studies, (•*!) mathe- 
matics, (4) geography, science, and health. 

3. A four-teacher staff, including the principal as one of the four teachers, 
should provide some free time to the principal for supervision, administrative direc- 
tion of the school's guidance program, the school activities, ami other executive 
duties. This free time should approximate one-third of the school day in a junior 
high school organized on the minimum basis and should be increased proportionally 
for larger schools. 

4. A teaching staff of fewer than four teachers places such restrictions upon the 
organization and curriculum of the junior high school as in effect to defeat its 

6 



66 

fundamental purposes — "departmental instruction, promotion by subjects, explora- 
tion of pupils' aptitudes, choice of subjects under guidance, prevocational courses, 
and a social organization that calls forth initiative and develops the sense of per- 
sonal responsibility for the welfare of the group" (Cardinal Principles, pages 18-19) 

Temporary cl ssification. If the initial organization does not ex- 
ceed 75 pupils and a staff of three teachers, the school will he classi- 
fied as a junior high school for a period of not more than two years, 
provided the following conditions be met: 

1. The evidence is clear that consolidation with one or more adjoining districts, 
so as to- include their 7th and 8th grades in the consolidated junior high school, is 
impracticable. 

'-. (a) There is evidence of an anticipated increase of enrollment t < ► th • u in- 
imum basis of 100 pupils as the 7th and 8th grades advance to the 9th at id 10th. 

(hi There is evidence of an anticipated increase to the same minimum by 
prospeel of later consolidation when adjoining districts can provide transportation 
and are convinced of junior high school advantages through demonstration in the 
neighboring community. 

.'->. The community is willing to assume financial responsibility for at least four 
full-time teachers for the junior high school. 

4. An additional fourth teacher will be added to the staff when the enrollment 
reaches 100. 

Part-time instruction. In the case of a minimum teaching staff of 
four teachers it is recommended that, in addition to the staff of four 
teat hers, the fine and practical arts— music, drawing (art), industrial, 
agricultural, commercial and home economics. — be taught by instruc- 
tors on a part-time arrangement with adjoining or nearby districts.* 
This arrangement may provide that an instructor in industrial arts 
or agriculture is to give half time to each of two schools, and his 
salary is to be prorated between the districts. Health education, 
commercial courses, music, and art may be similarly taught by one 
instructor in two or more schools. Where advisable, these special 
instructors may include elementary grades in their programs. If the 
above plan is temporarily or permanently impracticable, the arts 
courses must be included as special subjects in programs of the 
regular teachers. Until the school can provide a librarian, one 
teacher should be designated as teacher-librarian and should have 
the supervision of the school library in addition to her regular teach- 
ing. This teacher may be excused from the duties of a home-room 
counselor. 

Part-time instruction in agriculture or industrial arts for boys and 
in home economies for girls should be scheduled for the same periods 
on the same day of the week. The regular teaching staff will then 

*Part-time teachers must be officially employed by one board of din ctors whom 
other boards pay for such service as the teachers give them. 



67 

be relieved of classroom duties. This free time should be used, once 
a week, for faculty meetings and conferences. In this way, the 
faculty activities suggested in the chapter on School Activities can 
be undertaken in the small schools. 

Home-room counselor. Each class unit should be under the con- 
trol and guidance of a home-room counselor. Junior high school 
pupils are too immature for self-direction; they still require the 
wholesome type of teacher guidance that prevails in the one-teacher 
control of the elementary school. From the standpoint of the faculty 
each teacher, either as a home-room or associate home-room counselor, 
should participate in the guidance program of the school, to the end 
that guidance may become a primary responsibility with all the in- 
structional staff. 

School activities. Every junior high school should develop an or- 
ganized activities program. A suggested program, which has actually 
been tested under junior high school conditions, is given in the chap- 
ter on School Activities in this manual. This chapter on School Ac- 
tivities should be included in the matter of securing junior high 
school classification. 

Subject promotion. Subject promotion should prevail throughout 
the junior high school. In order that subject promotion may actually 
and successfully operate, some provision must be made that pupils 
may regain a ful 1 grade classification where this has been lost by sub- 
ject failures. Hence remedial and preventive measures in subject non- 
promotion are essential. In the small school, coaching periods should 
be included in the teachers' programs. A discussion of the organiza- 
tion of coaching and opportunity classes will be sent upon request 
to the Department. 

Guidance program. The guidance and educational placement of 
pupils through exploration and testing of their initial choices of 
elertives should be accepted as a primary purpose of the junior h'gh 
school. Means to this end will be determined somewhat by the size 
of the school, but guidance should permeate the program of studies 
and every school activity. There should be in each school the gui- 
dance of the home-room counselor; administrative direction of all 
guidance activities by the principal ; educational and vocational guid- 
ance content in the course of study, particularly, in the social studies 
and English: guidance objectives in the socialized activities: and, 
where practicable, definite guidance class instruction under the di- 
rection of a special teacher who devotes all or the major portion of her 
time to this' objective. Guidance in the junior hi<rh school must be re- 
cognized as a primary administrative and instructional responsibili- 
ty. See chapter in this manual on Guidance. 



. 68 

Supervised study. The sixty-minute period should provide for su- 
pervised study. In a six-hour school day, all sjhool work should be 
done, so far as possible, within school hours, particularly in the 
seventh and eighth years. Home work should be required in the ex- 
ceptional cases of subject failures and retarded pupils. Follow-up 
work in the environment outside the school may. of course, always 
be encouraged for all pupils. Some home study, in a gradually in- 
creasing amount, may be required in the ninth year as preparatory 
to home study during the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years. Su- 
pervised study is the chief objective of the lengthened period. A 
brief discussion of this subject and of the socialized recitation is 
given in the chapter on Instruction in this manual. 

Curriculum requirements. See the suggested program of studies in 
Part 1 of this chapter on the junior high school. Attention is also 
called to the general comments preceding the program of studies and 
to the typical daily program following the program of studies. 

Teachers' qualifications. Certificates which are not restricted to 
the elementary tield are valid for teaching in the junior high school. 

Holders of standard certification whose certificates do not author- 
ize them to teach in the years covered by the junior high school, may 
have this privilege added to their certificate upon presentation of a 
rating card showing successful experience in grades above the sixth. 

Holders of standard certification whose experience has been re- 
stricted to grades below the seventh, may qualify for teaching in the 
junior high school by the satisfactory completion of not less than 
twelve semester hours of approved training, not less than four sem- 
ester hours of which shall have been in junior high school education 
and the remainder in a subject or subject field of the junior high 
school curriculum. Such certification will entitle the hoMer to 
teach such subject or subject field in addition to the subjects pres- 
cribed for the elementary curriculum. 

Build'httf requirements. In addition to classrooms and homerooms, 
the junior high school should include building facilities for industrial 
arts or agriculture, home economics i cooking and sewing), an audi- 
torium, a gymnasium, and a library. 

Practical arts. Where equipment facilities in the smaller schools 
are lacking for industrial arts, agriculture, and home economics, the 
organization should not be delayed for this reason, provided a room 
for industrial arts or agriculture and a room for cooking and sewing 
are available. Instruction in these branches may temporarily be 
restricted if local conditions necessitate, to an informational char- 
acter with practical applications carried on at home or by junior pro- 



69 

jects out of school. Each community will come gradually to appre- 
ciate the need of adequate facilities and will respond more readily to 
the demonstration of such needs than to their anticipation. 

Auditorium, and Gymnasium. Where an auditorium and a gym- 
nasium can not be provided, two or more adjoining rooms, by means 
of movable partitions and movable seats, may be opened together for 
assembly or playroom and gymnasium. In buildings where both the 
auditorium and gymnasium can not be provided, the auditorium floors 
should be level and should be equipped with movable seats so that the 
auditorium may be easily and quickly converted into a play-room or 
gymnasium. 

Section 604 of the Code: 

(a) No school building shall be erected without a proper playground being 
provided therefor. 

(1) At least thirty (30) square feet per pupil shall be provided in other 
than rural districts. 

(2) Not less than one (1) acre, and two (2) if possible to secure the 
ground, shall be provided in rural communities. 

Library. The library should be a separate unit with seating ca- 
pacity of at least ten per cent, of the pupil enrollment. 

Building and equipment suggestions. Suggestions upon building 
plans will be submitted upon request to the Bureau of School Build- 
ings. Districts should submit preliminary plans of all contemplated 
building operations. Suggestions upon room equipments for indus- 
trial, agricultural, home economics, commercial, and vocational train- 
ing, for geography and science, music, drawing, the gymnasium, li- 
brary, or other special activity will be furnished upon request to the 
bureau or subject director having the particular activity in charge. 

Possible exceptions to essentials for junior high school classifica- 
tion. It is recognized that some fourth class districts, by reason 
of geographical environment and of impracticability of consolidation, 
will not be able to meet all the essential requirements. Each such 
district will be individually considered. The request for junior high 
school classification should be submitted to the Department with a 
statement of geographical conditions, maximum pupil enrollment 
by years, number of teachers with qualifications, building facilities, 
ability of district to equip building, a program of studies, and, if 
possible, a daily roster of classes. 

It should be clearly understood that the authorization of an organ- 
ization of grades seven to nine, or seven to ten, as a unit does not 
carry with it classification as a junior high school. Official classifi- 



70 

cation, which involves payment of teachers as high school teachers 
under the Edmonds' Law, will be made only after approval of build- 
ing, equipment, organization, and instruction. 

It is not the purpose of the Department needlessly to deprive any 
community of a junior high school organization, but to assist all com- 
munities in securing the maximum benefit from such an organization. 
It will be recognized that the essentials as given are based upon a 
limited experimentation. From time to time, therefore, it will be 
necessary to revise this preliminary statement. For this reason, 
the Department requests suggestions of modification. 



71 



VI. ESSENTIALS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL 
OPPORTUNITIES 

Educational thought has changed materially concerning the high 
school Avithin the last few years. There are at present nearly ten 
times as many boys and girls in American high schools as there 
were thirty years ago. This change has come about largely because 
the high school has offered larger opportunities b}' broadening its 
program of studies. It is clear that no community can be said to 
provide adequately for the secondary school needs of its young un- 
less it affords the following types of work. 

1. College preparation. While the colleges have been growing 
more and more liberal in their recognition of the newer subjects in- 
corporated into the high schools, no college as yet gives credit to all 
the subjects in an up-to-date high school. 

It is perfectly clear that the high school must provide for the 
comparatively small group of young people who wish to enter college. 
This involves, for those who wish to enter engineering courses, 
adequate preparation in mathematics, and, for many others a 
course containing at least four years of foreign languages. It also 
involves four years of English, a year each of physics and chemistry 
with adequate laboratory equipment, and at least two years of 
history. 

Approximate^ ten per cent of the pupils entering high school go 
to college. The fact that in some schools as many as fifty or sixty 
per cent of the graduates go to college is frequently evidence that 
the school is so largely concentrating its attention on college 
preparation that pupils not headed for college are apt to drop out 
before reaching the senior year because they find that the school of 
fers them a meager return for their effort. The chapter on guidance 
discusses the problem of assisting pupils in the selection of a cur- 
riculum. The desirability of collegiate education, — particularly 
of the traditional type — for all seekers is open to serious question. 
While there should be constant effort to increase the number of 
pupils going on to advanced educational opportunities suited to 
their individual needs, adequate attention should always be given 
+o those whose education must end in the high school. 

2. Commercial education and training. It is not unusual to find 
a community providing fairly well for the needs of the college 
preparatory group and failing to provide anything for the very large 
group of young people who wish to enter business. Many such 
communities require many young people to travel considerable 



72 

distances and pay from ten to twenty dollars a month for a year 
or mure in business colleges in order to secure the training that in all 
justice ought to be furnished by their home communities. This type 
of education is desired particularly by girls, whose safety is fre- 
quently endangered by absence from home. It is not a square deal 
to furnish free education for the young person of fairly good financial 
circumstances who is preparing for college, and to refuse the train- 
ing for the necessary job just ahead to the young person who must 
go to work because of financial stress. 

In the large city schools where adequate training is provided, the 
number of commercial pupils usually approximates fifty per cent 
of the total registration. What is perhaps of more importance to 
the community, in the public high school these young people are not 
only securing commercial training which will enable them to serve 
the business world, but they are at the same time getting an all round 
education in English, science, mathematics, and social studies which 
is essential to the best type of citizenship. 

3. Home economics. The census of 1910 showed that of all 
women in the Unitel States twenty-live years old and over, eighty- 
six and seven-tenths per cent were married. In the newer conception 
of secondary education as an all-round preparation for life, little 
argument is needed to show how essential is a training in home- 
making. Such essentials as cooking with a knowledge of balanced 
cation, home nursing, dress-making, millinery, and understanding 
of household budgets and accounts, and the fundamentals of child 
psychology should be a part of the secondary education of every girl. 

4. Practical arts. More and more the high school is furnishing 
an elementary training in various practical arts. The tremendous 
increase in numbers in the American high school means that it has 
gripped hundreds of thousands of young people who formerly went 
directly into the various occupations. 

If these pupils are to be retained and adequately educated, the 
school must render the kinds of service they need. It is useless to 
hope to keep them in a school that offers only the traditional cur- 
riculums. So generally has this fact been [recognized that no 
large city high school is being organized today that does not pro 
vide wood-working and machine shops and often, in addition, train- 
ing in such lines as electricity, sheet metal working, foundry, 
architecture, and other activities. 

5. Agriculture. It is most unfortunate that the high schools in 
our rural communities have largely trained the best young people of 
the communities only to send them away. Not only for the sake of 



73 

the communities, but also for the sake of thousands of young people 
in agricultural districts, adequate training in agriculture is essential. 
Along with this, of course, should go a broadening education in the 
fundamentals which should be the basis of all high school work. 
Existing rural high schools should be reorganized with a view to 
their specific service to rural communities. Where no high school 
facilities are available, rural community vocational schools and 
schools with vocational departments should be organized so that they 
will help to check the drift of our young people to the city by furnish- 
ing them with a genuine education which shall at once enrich the 
social life of the country and open to our youth an understanding of 
the sciences and arts in agriculture, which shall make them more 
efficient leaders in rural life. The increase in State funds made 
available under the Edmonds' Law will promote this development in 
many more communities than could have been served with the limited 
resources of the Smith Hughes Law. 

Advantages of larger schools. There are other lines of work such as 
intensive instruction in art and music and specialization along lines 
of literature, history, science, mathematics, and foreign languages, 
which ought to be possible in the modern high school. It is per- 
fectly obvious that it is impossible to furnish anything like adequate 
high school facilities without a considerable number of pupils. Any 
attempt by a single small community to furnish all of the various 
lines of instruction suggested above will result in a cost far beyond 
its ability. The half dozen pupils who can best be served by a 
course in agriculture and the twenty-five or so who desire instruction 
in commercial lines have the same right to the services of the com- 
inunity as have the five or ten who wish to go to college. Classes of 
three or four, or even a dozen pupils, are tremendously expensive. 
It is evident, therefore, that we must look toward the concentration 
of our high school opportunities wherever it is at all possible. 

The rural high .school. The problem of providing adequate high 
school opportunities lor the young people of the rural districts is 
perhaps the most difficult one connected with secondary education. 
Many communities are so isolated that not more than twenty to 
forty pupils can be conveniently brought together. The omission 
of any one of the live types of instruction is sure to work an injustice 
to some of these pupils. Vet it is obviously impossible to furnish all 
types of instruction without making the cost of the buildings, equip- 
ment, and instruction prohibitive. In such cases choice must be 
made of the kinds of work that will at once render the largest service 
to the largest number of pupils and the best return to the com- 
munities. There is reason to believe that emphasis upon practical 



74 

arts, agriculture, and home economics will result in a large growth 
in the service and in the numbers of the rural high school. 

Whatever the development of secondary education may be, it will 
fail in one of its most vital functions if it does not provide adequately 
for the education of country boys and girls. Our people must think 
and feel not as a member of a capitalistic class, a labor class, or a 
farmer class — but as Americans. Liberal provision for the participa- 
tion of country youth in a hroad and generous educational program 
is the most hopeful means of insuring this solidarity of thought and 
sentiment. Thus far in our history the rural communities have 
furnished much of our political, social, and economic leadership. 
Habits of industry are promoted by country life. A sense of relative 
values, a disregard of petty annoyances and discomforts, and a de- 
votion to worthy ambitions and ideals are promoted by freedom 
from the myriad distractions of city life. If we provide liberal ed- 
ucational advantages, we shall continue to draw inspiration and 
leadership in due proportion from the unexhausted life of the 
country. 

But the country high school must not fail to enrich the life of the 
country. Purely traditional and so-called cultural courses have 
directed the ambitious boys and girls to the distant college as they 
must continue to do, but the absence of any other type of work has 
sent away disheartened thousands of other boys and girls to whom 
the school owed equal service. In addition to its purely academic 
work the rural school must offer courses particularly adapted to the 
needs of the country, and its pupils must use on the farms and in the 
hamlets those contributions of science, literature, and art that will 
most directly improve the moral, social, and economic well-being of 
the rural community. It would be difficult, for example, to over- 
estimate the contribution that wisely reorganized instruction in 
science can make to the broadening of thought and the effectiveness 
of effort in country life. As a common center for both rural and 
urban school, the courses in English, history and the social studies, 
and health should lay the foundation for appreciation of our common 
heritage and for an understanding of our common problems. 

The six-year high school. An administrative device that promises 
improvement in a considerable proportion of rural districts is the 
inclusion of grades seven and eight in the high school. Where the 
number of pupils is not sufficient to warrant a separate organization, 
the advantages of departmental instruction and of some opportunity 
to try out various types of educational and vocational instruction 
can be provided in a six-year high school. For example, a shop 
with wood-working tools, a forge, sheet-metal equipment, and possibly 
some facilities for simple electrical work can be provided. The work 



75 

of this shop can be closely coordinated with the needs of the rural 
home and the farm, and the interest of both pupils and community 
stimulated. The provision of home-economic equipment and courses 
serves a similar purpose. The experience in many rural community 
vocational schools and schools with vocational departments has 
shown the value of this type of work. 

It is the purpose of the law defining the junior high school to 
encourage the provision of the occupational work and the exploratory 
opportunities characteristic of the junior high school. Respon- 
sibility for the classification of grades seven and eight as a part of the 
high school is placed upon the State Council of Education, and to 
secure this approval the curriculums and organization must provide 
adequate advantages beyond those of the traditional academic sub- 
jects. In the great majority of rural communities, however, it will 
be wise to organize the seventh and eighth grades with the high 
school, even if it is impossible to meet the requirements for junior 
high school classification. Three teachers for grades seven to ten 
inclusive can cover the work of these grades better by departmental 
instruction than by a division on grade lines. Classification as a 
third grade high school would automatically give recognition to one 
of these teachers as a high school teacher. The Department of 
Public Instruction will be glad to assist in adapting this form of 
organization to local conditions and needs. 



76 



77 



VII. GUIDANCE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 

A changing educational problem. Broadly considered, the whole 
process of education is one of so guiding the child as to develop his 
best individual possibilities and to prepare him for helpful participa- 
tion in the cooperative activities of society. Teachers have always 
realized that their instruction in subject matter was only one means 
to a larger end. Many distinguished careers bear testimonial of the 
potent touch of a sympathetic personality which has changed for the 
better the current of an influential life. 

Under simpler conditions the unorganized influences of society 
exercised a more or less fortuitous guidance of youth. Modern in- 
dustrialism and city life, Avhile broadening the experiences and the 
contacts, have made human relationships less personal. Rural com- 
munities as well have come under this influence. The unparalleled 
growth of our high schools has tended to mechanize the educational 
process. The expansion of high school programs of studies has at- 
tracted young people destined for every social sphere. All of these 
conditions make it imperative that the important function of guid- 
ance in education be so organized that its helpful influence may not 
be left to chance. 

A deftnitiwi of guidance. The term, guidance, as we generally use 
it in school work refers to those aspects of school work which aim 
to assist the pupil to choose wisely among the subjects and activities 
of the school 'and among possible vocational careers and life objec- 
tives. These efforts at guidance must be based upon knowledge of 
individual capabilities and needs on the one hand and upon an under- 
standing of the economic and social demands of the community on 
the other. These objectives include among others, vocational useful- 
ness ; worthwhile citizenship ; moral and ethical character ; apprecia- 
tion of art, literature, and music ; good health ; worthy use of leisure; 
and worthy home membership. Other objectives might be included. 

During recent years many means and methods have been developed 
which supplement instruction in the traditional school subjects. 
Some of these are the use of psychological tests and measurements, 
participation in community enterprises, school activities, and student 
participation in school government, the use of projects, a closer rela- 
tion between the school and the home, a specific study of respon- 
sibilities to be met by the pupil in a higher school, in the community, 
or in employment. All these activities are included in a program 
of guidance. 

Therefore guidance is concerned with something more than the 
selection of future studies or the choice of future vocations. An ef- 



78 

fective guidance program in a school should enrich the school ex- 
perience of each child. It should bring the teachers, and through 
them should bring the pupils, to a clearer understanding of the rela- 
tion of the school to the home, the community, and employment. It 
should result in purposeful student activities; in the development 
of such mutual understanding and confidence between teachers and 
pupils that the school may give to each child, in proportion to his 
capacity, an abundant preparation for life. 

The pupil's need of guidance. Pupils differ from one another in 
native ability for school work as well as in character and tempera- 
ment. They need guidance from the time they begin school and 
thenceforward through graduation or elimination from school to a 
safe launching into the years that follow. 

The recent development of standardized tests of intelligence and 
of achievement in school work makes possible a classification of 
pupils into groups of different ability. In the elementary school the 
curriculum should be modified to meet the needs of at least three 
groups, with differentiation in content, method, and expected rate 
of progress. In secondary schools large enough to make it practi- 
cable different curriculums should be offered, and the pupils in each 
should be divided according to their ability into at least two groups. 

Wherever these departures from the traditional curriculum are 
developed, individual guidance is no longer a post-mortem affair 
struggling with problems of over-age, dislike of school, and mental 
stagnation. It becomes directive and preventive, rather than remed- 
ial. Repeated failure in school work is not evidence of high educa- 
tional standards. It leads not only to elimination from school but 
also to careless habits which are a detriment to school work and a 
handicap to the pupil in his later life. 

Curriculum guidance. With the increasing differentiation of the 
various curriculums and electives in the senior high school and the 
four-year high school, the problem of curriculum guidance assumes 
increasing importance. Studies of elimination have proved that 
pupils leave school more frequently because of discontent with their 
work than because of financial necessity. The guidance program 
should usually be able either to prove to the pupil the unreasonable- 
ness of his discontent or to adjust his work so as to enlist hip 
interest. The junior high school is designed to meet this need. It 
offers a service that has its fundamentals in guidance, both for the 
child going on in school and for the drop-out. The home rooms, 
clubs, other activities, the variety of experience, and the seventh 
and eighth grade course of instruction in guidance all aim at this 
more personal service to pupils. 



79 

Vocational guidance. Misunderstanding of the term vocational 
guidance has frequently discredited well-planned efforts to promote 
the interests of the pupils. The best the school can da is to give an 
understanding of various occupations, teach pupils to weigh the ad- 
vantages and disadvantages of those that appeal to them and to es- 
rimate as justly as possible their own abilities and temperament in 
relation to the vocations considered, keep the door open for the 
almost inevitable shift of adolescent interest, and educate as broadly 
as it can. This will involve not only a thorough knowledge of the 
demands of various occupations, but also a mastery of applied 
psychology with particular emphasis on applied. 

For pupils who must leave school early some specific training can 
lie provided. In preparing pupils to take their places in the eco- 
nomic world the school should aim not only to train but also to edu- 
cate. It should particularly endeavor to make its charges under- 
stand the fundamentals of our economic organization and the in- 
evitable demands involved in its membership. A lesson it will not 
fail to teach will show the difference between the position that has 
possibilities of development and the relatively more remunerative 
blind-alley job. The possibilities of growth through additional train- 
ing and the opportunities available for the training should be pre- 
sented so as to appeal to the physical and intellectual types fitted 
for different lines of work. Here the guidance expert becomes the 
most valuable adviser of the maker of curriculums and courses of 
study. 

Other guidance activities. Avocational, recreational, and physical 
guidance, moral and social guidance, and guidance with the cultural 
values of life in view, all have a place in the guidance program. Well 
organized extra-curricular activities are among the best means of 
enlisting interests of pupils along these lines. The clubs, musical 
organizations, athletics, school journalism, and most of all the stud- 
ent participation in the government and administration of the school 
offer educational possibilities often surpassing those of the curri- 
culums. If the aim of the schools is "to teach pupils to do better 
the desirable things they are going to do anyway", these activities, 
whicfh in their very nature teach pupils the difficult art of joining: in 
cooperative activity with their fellows, are of prime value. More- 
over, their service in saving pupils for the school and in enlisting 
their interest, in the subject matter of the curriculum would alone 
justify their existence. 

The class-room teacher often has much to give in these aspects of 
guidnnce, and much to receive in return. Not onlv can these interests 
be made to vitalize instruction — they can as well be made to provide 
an interested approach so as to win the confidence of pupils, and to 
enlist their best endeavor in the work at hand. 

\ 



80 

Guidance agencies in the school. These agencies are human agen- 
cies — teachers and principals, and, in a large district, heads of de- 
partments, supervisors of special subjects, psychological examiners, 
medical inspectors^ school nurses, home visitors, and attendance 
officers. High school principals have very generally accepted as one 
of their most important duties their function as counselors of their 
pupils. The many and varied executive duties of the principal of 
a large school, however, often seriously limit his service in this capa- 
city. For the sake of that intimate contact with the educational, 
vocational, and social problems of his pupils which is essential to him 
as a leader, the principal can not afford to neglect personal partici- 
pation in the organized guidance program of the school. At the same 
time, in any but the smaller schools, a delegation of definite respon- 
sibility with appropriate time allotment is essential to a successful 
guidance program. 

Department instruction, which is universal in high s-hools, tends 
to concentrate the thought of the teacher upon the problems of his 
particular field of learning. He. as much as the principal, needs the 
humanizing influence of definite responsibilities in the guidance of 
the pupils. 

Every junior and senior high school teacher should, therefore, feel 
the conscientious responsibility of participating in the guidance pro- 
gram of the school. Not to have a part in this function indicates 
a. failure to realize the essential purpose of the school. Too often 
guidance has been subordinated to the mastery of subjects, with the 
result that many pupils have accumulated useless learning which not 
infrequently has hindered rather than helped their adjustment to 
practical life. 

Guidance through organization. A guidance program is dependent 
from the very start upon the organization of all the agencies in the 
school. The superintendent or supervising principal should take 
the initiative for the district, and the principal for the school unit. 
As soon as possible, however, the larger district should have its central 
guidance committee, or steering committee composed of school ad- 
ministrators, and the school should have its committee on guidance. 
The school committee should, if possible, have one or more members, 
including the chairman, given time in school hours for this work. 
These should ultimately become expert through experience and special 
study. Following their appointment, the guidance committee in each 
school should meet, and, through proper organization and cooperation 
with principals and teachers, devise measures for recording the per- 
sonal history, interests, home environment, and the physical, mental, 
and moral characteristics of every child in the school. All informa- 
tion obtainable from previous school records, mental tests, and var- 



81 

ious other school agencies should be made readily available. This 
can be arranged through some such plan as an indexed cumulative 
envelope requiring no transfer of data. It should always be recog 
nized that no organization can take the place of the personal contacts 
between teacher and group and teacher and individual pupil. These 
contacts can, however, be made much more helpful by the information 
such a collection of records will afford. Any record system should 
be kept as simple as possible, and the counselor must avoid the ob- 
vious danger of devoting to the mere keeping of records time and 
thought that should be applied to personal contact with pupils. 

The chairman of the guidance committee. The chairman of the 
guidance committee should have definite responsibility for the guid- 
ance program of the school. It goes without saying that he should 
be thoroughly in touch with the best theory and practice in guidance, 
and that the principal and teachers should look to him for inspiration 
and leadership in this field. With his committee he should counsel 
with individual teachers and arrange meetings of groups of teachers 
having similar problems, and meetings of the entire faculty. He 
will of course meet students both as individuals and as groups. At 
the same time he will keep in close touch with business and industry, 
and with schools of higher grade so as to be able to direct his pupils 
in the next step in their occupational or educational careers. The 
chairman of a school committee especially should have a liberal allow- 
ance of time for this important function. As the system grows and 
its usefulness becomes evident, it will in the large city school require 
at least the full time of a teacher. Principals and boards of educa- 
tion should recognize its value and provide liberally for the system 
because it will, if efficient save many pupils for the schools and in- 
crease beyond measure the service of the sehoo/1 to all of its charges. 
Guidance of boys and of girls presents essentially different problems 
in some respects. If the chairman is a man, he should have the con- 
stant assistance of one or more women representatives of the faculty, 
and vice versa. 

Placement. The school should have a placement bureau as an 
integral part of its guidance service. This bureau will necessarily 
keep in intimate touch with the vocations that pupils will enter, and 
will readily respond to requests for employes. It can thus be of ser- 
vice to both pupils and employer. Close cooperation will very often 
result in saving promising pupils for the school through temporary 
part-time employment. No small part of its service will be its follow- 
up work to ascertain what openings are suitable, to insure right 
attitudes of mind on the part of pupils and employers, and to bring 
back to the school the information that will lead to a better adapta- 
tion of its work to the needs of the business world. In doing this 



82 

it must always remember that it is an educational institution design- 
ed for the betterment of society and not an agency through which 
youth may be exploited. Rightly conducted the placement function 
may become one of the strongest agencies in harmonizing the school 
and the business community and in establishing a mutual confidence 
that will insure adequate provision for the expansion of school op- 
portunities. 

G-uida/nce in the small school. It is obvious that the school having 
from one to four or five teachers can do comparatively little in the 
way of organized guidance. The close personal relations between 
teachers and pupils in some measure takes the place of the guidance 
organization of the larger school. The need of guidance, however, 
is quite as great in the small school, and the principal and teachers 
in such a school should give all possible attention to this important 
service. The organization of a guidance program for the district 
or county will of course afford the best means of directing this phase 
of the work of the school. 

Outline for suggested organization of guidance in a high school. 

I. The organization 

(Under administrative control of superintendent or supervising principal) 

A. Chairman of faculty guidance committee 

B. Faculty committee 
O. Entire faculty 

IT. Functions .... 

A. Curriculum guidance 

B. Vocational guidance 

C. Coordination-promotion of other phases of guidance 

III. Equipment 

A. Records of individual environment, qualities, and interests 

B. Records of achievement in school 

C. Records of personal conferences, home visits, intelligence tests, environ- 

ment, and former school record 

D. Educational opportunities detailed 

E. Occupational opportunities detailed 

P. Indexed cumulative envelope or other container for individual records 
G. Suitable accommodations for private conferences, desk, telephone, and 
filing facilities. 

IV. Agencies and methods 

A. Faculty study of guidance under leadership of guidance committee chair- 

man and principal 

B. Development of suitable material for program through project commit- 

tees 

C. Contact of guidance committee with teacher and with pupils 

D. Personal contact of teacher and pupil 



83 

E. Instruction in the regular curriculum 

F. Group guidance discussions 

G. Talks by representatives of various occupations 
H. School contact with parents and home 

I. Social life of the school — Articulation of school activities program 

with guidance; e. g., class programs, assembly -programs, club 

activities, current events 

The above outline expanded to cover in detail the entire plan of guidance for 

school districts of various classifications will be found in the general bulletin 

on school guidance activities. 



64 



85 



VIII. INSTRUCTION 

Why are you doing it? It has well been said that "a school is or- 
ganized that it may be administered and administered that it may be 
instructed." Successful instruction requires that the teacher shall 
not only have a command of his subject and of the technique of its 
presentation, but also that he shall have a clear understanding of 
its place and purpose in the scheme of education. The fundamental 
question,, "Why are you doing it?" will go far to vitalize the in- 
struction and determine both content and method in any subject, 

Pedagogy vs. logic. The following quotation from the high school 
manual of the Stale of Ohio calls attention to another vital considera- 
tion: 

"Another new principle is that which asserts that subject values and teaching 
methods must be tested in terms of the law of learning and the application of 
knowledge to the activities of life, rather than primarily in terms of the demauds 
of any subject as a logically organized science. There has been entirely too much 
worship of branches of knowledge by teachers who have specialized in them, — a 
worship that subordinates psychology, pedagogy and life uses to the strict regimen of 
logical arrangement of subject matter. Thus we have had history built up almost 
exclusively on a chronological basis ; we have had algebra and geometry kept 
distinctly separated because each was a beautiful schematic entity in the eyes of its 
proponents and expounders ; and we have had the natural sciences kept vague 
and experimental and relatively uncontaminated by practical applications. Quite 
happily, we have emerged from this state, but it is recent enough to need pointing 
out. The demand has now become fairly universal that, in arranging subject matter 
for learning, attention be given to considerations of economy in learning and 
effective control of subject matter rather than to 'logic' Fully developed, this 
means that materials of instruction should be offered in connection with the solving 
of problems and the execution of projects in fields where the pupils already 
have both knowledge and interest, traditional and conventional organization to 
the contrary notwithstanding." 

Three valuable contributions of recent educational scholarship de- 
serve special attention. 

1. Supervised or directed study. The formation of correct mental 
habits is of greater importance than the accumulation of specific 
knowledge. After school days are over, pupils will render service 
largely in proportion to their ability to perform their alloted tasks 
independently. It is, therefore, important that they shall be taught 
how to solve problems. The following quotation from Alfred L. 
Hall-Quest defines supervised study: 

"Supervised study is that plan of school procedure whereby each pupil is 
so adequately instructed and directed in the methods of studying and thinking 
that his daily preparation will progress under conditions most favorable to a 



86 

hygienic, economical, and self-reliant career of intellectual endeavor. It seeks to 
prepare pupils not simply for high school graduation or courses in higher education, 
but to an even greater extent for successful coping with problems in a world of intense 
competition, where superior achievement depends on initiative, clear thinking, 
and confidence in one's ability to organize experience for new adjustments. 
What is aimed at in supervised study is an individual who is trained to attack 
problems, and to organize his experience into large controlling concepts, and who, 
moreover, has acquired ability to initiate or to serve without merely doing what he is 
told to do." 

No definite division of the period can be followed in daily prac- 
tice; the demands of each day's lesson should determine the division. 
Each sixty-minute period, however, should usually be divided be- 
tween: first, the recitation (review) or socialized presentation of 
yesterday's lesson; second, a carefully planned and definite assign- 
ment of today's lesson; third, the silent study, under direction, of 
today's lesson. 

The recitation or review of the preceding lesson should rarely 
exceed one-third of the period. The chief aim iu planning the time 
schedule of each lesson should be to secure the maximum amount of 
time for silent study when the teacher cooperatively works with the 
whole class or directs individual study. The attitude of the teacher 
becomes not so much that of imparting information as of developing 
right habits of study. The chief responsibilities are: organization of 
the review to economize time, clear assignment of the lesson to secure 
interested and intelligent study by the pupils, and unobstrusive su- 
pervision of the silent study to establish right habits of concentra- 
tion in study. The whole period, not merely the silent study, should 
be interpreted as supervised study. The high school should set up 
as the standard of classroom methods the principle that teaching is 
instruction in learning. This principle recognizes the psychology 
of adolescence — the impulse to self-activity, self-expression, and self- 
revelation. 

Where articulation with an established high school time schedule 
of forty or forty-five minutes is necessary, the number and length of 
periods must be at least initially controlled by present local condi- 
tions. In some cases a beginning can be made and the applicability 
of the plan can be at least partially tested by lengthening one or two 
of the regular periods to sixty minutes or more. 

2. The socialized recitation. The activity most common in the 
ordinary classroom is the re-citation of the substance of the textbook 
in response to the teacher's questions. Its concomitant is the assign- 
ment of "the next six pages" and its result at best a phonographic 
record of the textbook. The socialized recitation, on the other hand, 
requires the cooperative activity of the class group under the direc- 
tion of the teacher. It establishes a standard of class interest, ac- 



87 

tivity, and achievement, and focalizes the dynamic powers of the 
class upon a worth-while task. "As the great defect of the ordinary 
recitation is the preponderance of the teacher, the socialized recita- 
tion aims to magnify the importance of pupil-activity. The mono- 
polizing teacher is replaced by the activity of the group." ( Robbins, 
"The Socialized Recitation," page 22). 

A socialized recitation is not achieved by placing a pupil in the 
teacher's position as a conductor of the recitation. This is merely 
an exchange in the old formal type of recitation. A socialized recita- 
tion means participation by all naturally and spontaneously. "The 
cooperative pursuit of common purposes is used as a means of re- 
moving the lifelessness of the recitation of the cut-and-dried variety." 
Pupils must be willing to undertake assignments, to search for data 
and materials, to participate by question or answer when actually 
able to contribute, to avoid officiousness and over-eagerness to mono- 
polize time, to cultivate an attitude of cooperation, to respect the 
rights of others in participation, to accept criticism gracefully and 
to offer criticism helpfully. 

The teacher does not abrogate leadership. Supervision and direc- 
tion of pupils' activities do not replace but comprise the teacher's 
leadership. The teacher becomes a student in diagnosis of pupils' 
powers, and in the problems of class work; a guide in the activities 
of pupils as the chief participants in the recitation ; a counselor in 
their efforts to develop dormant abilities ; a judge to determine 
progress; a leader to assign cooperative tasks, and finally a social 
agent to socialize children — the purpose for which schools in a de- 
mocracy exist. These functions add dignity and effectiveness to the 
work of the teacher. His function ceases to be merely to impart in- 
formation ; he becomes a leader of other, though younger, social 
agents. The classroom, for teacher and pupils, becomes an actual 
experience in cooperation and socialization. 

No school or teacher should undertake the socialized recitation 
without first making a thorough study of its purpose, its dangers, and 
the necessity of adapting its varied forms of organization to subject, 
to pupils, and to changing conditions of classroom work. The 
socialized recitation involves a change of attitude toward mutual re- 
sponsibilities by both teachers and pupils. 11 requires a new spirit 
of cooperation between teacher and pupils and between pupils. For 
the teacher there should be a preparatory period of study of its pur- 
poses. For the pupils there should be a preparatory stage of train- 
ing in the power to participate. The socialized recitation actually 
means socializing children through the recitation. As school social 
ization, in the large, must be the reflection of the personality of the 



88 

school as a social unit of pupils and faculty; equally so, the social- 
ized recitation must be the reflection of the personal powers and 
social cooperation of the pupils and teacher in each class. 

3. The project method. Much recent discussion and argument 
have centered around the so-called "project method". Without enter- 
ing the controversy, il Is safe 1<» emphasize certain values that can be 
found in the use of this method and the application of the principles 
it involves. 

Doctor William 11. Kilpatrick of Teachers College* calls attention 
to the fact that this method is not a new discovery so much as an 
emphasis upon a "purposeful act", involving "whole-hearted, vigorous 
activity". "It provides for the adequate utilization of the laws of 
learning, and no less for the essential elements of the ethical quality 
of conduct. The last named looks of course to the social situation 
as well as to the individual attitude". 

Enlisting self -activity . The project method aims to change the at- 
titude of mind with which pupils approach school work by enlisting 
i heir initiative under the teacher's guidance in deciding, first, what 
problem is worth their attention at a given time; second, in determin- 
ing the method of attack; third, in working at the solution of 
the problem; and fourth, in judging the results. Like the partici- 
pation of pupils in the school government it makes the teacher a 
leader rather than a driver without in any way diminishing his 
authority or his influence. Instead of simply responding to the 
earher's direction, the pupil in individual projects and the group 
in cooperative projects becomes self-active. 

Edited tin;/ for democr cy. One of the lirst advantages of this plan 
is that it develops habits appropriate to citizenship in a democracy. 
This in the last analysis is the purpose of the American public school. 
Citizenship in a despotism calls for habits of an entirely different 
type, not unlike those described by Doctor Kilpatrick in discussing 
the position of the serf or the slave. In this connection Doctor 
Kilpatrick says: "These poor unfortunates must in the interest of 
the overmastering system be habituated to act with a minimum of 
their own purposing and with a maximum of servile acceptance of 
others' purposes. In important matters they merely follow plans 
handed down to them from above, and execute these according to 
prescribed directions. For them another carries responsibility and 
upon the results of their labor another passes judgment. No such 
plan as that here advocated would produce the kind of docility re- 
quired for their hopeless fate. But it is a democracy which we con 

*William H. Kilpatrick — "The Project Method" — Teachers College Record, Vol. 
XIX, No. 4. 



89 

template and with which we are here concerned.'' In the interest 
of this democracy the habits of self directed activity, helpful and 
satisfactory group standards, and the habit of conformance with 
these group standards is of the first importance. 

Developing uiciit<iJ habits. Any discussion of instruction must 
give prime consideration to the development of correct mental habits. 
The ordinary set re-citation of the textbook can hardly be expected 
to develop habits which will necessarily tend to make the young 
person "do better those desirable things he is going to do anyway". 
In few cases will he be called upon to follow any such process as 
mere restatement from a book. He will be -ailed upon to recognize 
problems, solve them, and then to undertake new projects of his own, 
to work with others on projects demanding cooperation, contributing 
his share and profiting by the activities of his fellows. 

Moral training. On the topic of moral training Doctor Kilpatrick 
says — 

"The richness of life is seen upon reflection to depend, in large measure, v.t least, 
upon the tendency of what one does to suggest and prepare for succeeding activities. 
Any activity — beyond the barest physical wants — which does not thus 'lead on' be- 
comes in time stale and flat. Such 'leading on" means that the individual has been 
modified so that he sees what he did not see or does what before he could not do. 
But this is exactly to say that the activity has had an educative effect. Not to 
elaborate the argument, we may assert that the richness of life depends exactly on 
its tendency to lead on to other like fruitful activity : that the degree of this 
tendency consists exactly in the educative effect of the activity involved ; and that 
we may therefore take as the criterion of the value of any activity — whether inten- 
tionally educative or not — its tendency directly or indirectly to lead the individual 

and others whom he touches on to other like fruitful activity We 

contemplate no scheme of subordination of teacher or school to childish whim : 
but we do mean that any plan of educational procedure which does not aim con- 
sciously and insistently at securing and utilizing vigorous purposing on the part 
of the pupils is founded essentially on an ineffective and unfruitful basis. Nor is 
the quest for desirable purposes hopeless. There is no necessary conflict in kind 
between the social demands and the child's interests. Our whole fabric of 
institutional life grew out of human interests. The path of the race is here a 
possible path for the individual. There is no normal boy but has already many 
socially desirable interests and is capable of many more. It is the special duty 
and opportunity of the teacher to guide the pupil through his present interests 
and achievement into the wader interests and achievement demanded by the wider 
social life of the older world". 

Supervision. In securing good class-room work nothing is more 
important than effective supervision. The principal, head of depart- 
ment, or superintendent who after visiting a class can show the 
teacher how to teach better is increasing many fold the efficiency of 
the school and its returns to the community. To do this he must 
have a clear understanding of the aims of the various subjects, a 
mastery of the technique of teaching, and a degree of tact and of 



90 

human sympathy that will enable him to advise the teacher as a 
helpful friend rather than as an official critic. Such a supervisor 
will endeavor to accomplish his ends largely by constructive sugges- 
tions rather than by petty criticisms. Many of the faults of technique 
mentioned below will disappear once the teacher grasps the funda- 
mental aims of the subject and begins to study his own daily prac- 
tices. 

The aim of instruction. The first objective of the supervisor should 
be to make sure that each teacher has a clear conception of the pur- 
pose of his particular subject. The tendency is to accept the text- 
book as an authoritative exposition of a subject and to "teach the 
book" with little discrimination as to the relative value of various 
parts of the subject or of the contribution of the subject to the lives 
of the pupils or of the communities in which they are to live. This 
attitude on the part of the teacher tends to crystallization. After 
the subject has been presented to a few successive classes a certain 
set of questions and a few formal and stereotyped explanations be- 
come habitual. A concomitant of such teaching is the assignment of 
"the next six pages," the painful question -and-answer re-citation, and 
the endurance-test attitude of mind on the part of the pupils, which 
leads to elimination of many of the most dynamic young people and 
to the acceptance of the school by others as a sort of necessary limita- 
tion of youth quite remote from their real instincts and interests. 

A keen appreciation by the teacher of the aims of the subject and of 
its vital contribution to the lives of the young people and their com- 
munities will do more than anything else to prevent this calamitous 
condition. The constant effort to interpret these aims to the pupils 
and so to emphasize the most vital aspects of the subject as to arouse 
interest and insure permanent life values apart from the mastery of 
the book, which in most cases is largely evanescent, marks the dif- 
ference between the live and the dead teacher. The teacher who asks 
himself every day, "Why am I teaching this subject? Why do I use 
this textbook? What are my pupils to get out of the day's lesson? 
Why do I ask this question or assign this topic?" is pretty sure to 
be one of the most popular teachers in the school even if he is the 
most exacting in his insistence on thorough work. In so far as he 
has a sane estimate of his aims, his point of view will insure purpose- 
ful assignments, proper emphasis in the class period, and helpful 
self-criticism of his results. 

The supervisor of instruction will have no difficulty in recognizing 
1his purposeful discrimination on the part of the teacher. Even if 
he is not a specialist in the subject, a principal who has a sound 
educational philosophv and an understanding of the principles of 
leaching will recognize the superiority of such an instructor. The 
principal can not be a specialist in all subjects. He should have an 



91 

understanding of the purposes of the various subjects and of the 
general principles of good teaching. He will, therefore, judge the 
quality of the instruction under his supervision on these general 
principles and make his constructive suggestions so as to help his 
teachers to a better application of the purposes of instruction and the 
laws of teaching. Not infrequently will a principal having these 
qualifications prove vitally helpful to a specialist who has superior 
knowledge of the subject matter. 

Some definite criteria. One of the most helpful criteria of class 
instruction is found in the answer to the question, "How many people 
in this class are working?" On this basis the painful dialogue be- 
tween the teacher and one pupil, while the rest are either pursuing 
entirely independent lines of thinking or dreaming, or trying to 
figure out whether they are likely to escape being operated upon this 
period, becomes a subject for conference and suggestion. The project 
method and the socialized recitation, involving as they inevitably do a 
considerable use of the topical recitation followed by the questions 
and the criticism and approval of the class, is the best preventive 
for the individualized dialogue. All such plans, however, must be 
adaptations rather than the formal adoption of official prescriptions. 
Sometimes dialogues are necessary; sometimes so-called socialized 
recitations ramble into confused wildernesses ; sometimes topical 
recitations are tedious recitals of undigested irrelevancies. The 
success of a recitation depends upon the adaptation of the method 
10 the purpose, the material, and the class. 

No fault of class-room method is more common thai) that of the 
teacher talking too much. Many teachers are not satisfied until 
they have asked a question in a half dozen ways. Pupils are set 
guessing not what is important in the subject but what particular 
form of expression is in the teacher's mind, and precious moments 
are consumed bv the exposition. The often halting explanation of a 
pupil is interrupted in the teacher's anxiety to have a particular 
form of presentation offered. The result is that many teachers, not 
infrequently those of long experience, smother their pupils with tbeir 
own verbal barrage. A teacher who has fallen into this bad habit 
can frequently be shown his error by the simple device of an actual 
test of the relative amount of time he consumes as shown by a chart 
for ten consecutive minutes, which might show u > something as 
follows: 

Total 
1st minute 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th seconds 
Teacher 60 sec. 55 60 30 50 60 60 40 60 60 535 



P U pil 5030 10 00 20 0065 



92 

The tendency to talk too much is probably the one most insidious 
and persistent fault of class-room practice. A large percentage of 
teachers would improve their instruction by obeying the admonition 
printed on a card and kept constantly before them, 'DON'T TALK 
TOO MUCH." 

It is amazing how frequently even experienced teachers grow negli- 
gent in certain matters of detail concerning which principles arc well 
established and generally known. For example, a seating chart 
should be made at the beginning of each term so that the daily roll 
call of the class may occupy only three or four seconds Details such 
as the distribution of supplies, the return of written papers, etc, 
should be so systematized as to occupy seconds rather than minutes. 
Questions or topics should be announced before the name of a pupil 
is called; otherwise only the pupil named will give close attention. 
Pupils should never be called on in rotation. Questions or topics 
should not be repeated for the benefit of inattentive pupils. Concert 
recitations are futile because no one in particular is held to account. 
Too great dependence upon volunteer recitations removes respon- 
sibility from many individuals, as does ;t tendency to call on only 
a few of the brighter pupils. The repetition of the pupil's answers 
by the teacher is a waste of time if the teacher insists that answers 
be spoken so that all can hear. The list might easily be extended. 
The teacher who is intelligently living to improve will make a 
conscious effort to check up his daily practice by applying such 
cautions as are given in such a book as Hughes' "Mistakes in Teach- 
ing." 

Supervisory devices. Obviously no supervising officer can do more 
ilian to set definite aims and principles before his teachers and then 
endeavor to help them in the pursuit of the aims and (he application 
of the principles. Frequent class visitation followed by conferences 
with the teacher is the most effective means of improving teachers 
in service. Coupled with this, however, should be a definite presenta- 
tion of aims and principles. The teachers' meeting affords perhaps 
the most valuable opportunity for this instruction. The faculty that 
is actively studying some problem like the socialized recitation, the 
project method, or supervised study under souk 1 such plan as is sug- 
gested in the chapter on school activities in this manual is pretty sure 
to improve in its daily work. The attitude of mind favors intelligent 
scrutiny of aims, content, and methods of instruction, and the bene- 
ficial results extend much beyond the limits of faculty discussion. 
The principal who arouses in his teachers a dissatisfaction with 
their habits of instruction and an earnest effort for improvement is 
a real leader. 



93 



Attendance upon summer sessions, extension courses, and system 
atic reading can do much to prevent or overcome the tendency for a 
teacher to be satisfied with habitual methods that have become stereo- 
typed and easy. The wise supervisor of instruction will inspire and 
encourage his teachers in the use of all these devices for improvement. 



JM 



95 



IX. STUDENT AND FACULTY ACTIVITIES 

The Underlying Philosophy 

Citizenship the first aim of the high school. The success of our 
democratic government and social order depends upon the intelli 
gence, the conscience, and the skill with which the great mass of 
our people attack our political, social, and economic problems. The 
public high school is the one institution through which society con 
most directly and purposefully attack the problem of developing the 
qualities essential to successful democracy. It is owned and run by 
society ; it is open on equal terms to all the children of all the people ; 
it has under its daily influence the group from which will come nearly 
all the leaders of thought and sentiment in the coming generation; 
and perhaps most important of all — it has them at the time when 
they are more responsive to social appeals than at any other period 
of their lives. 

Clearly the first duty of the high school is to make its charges in- 
telligent concerning the history, the philosophy, and the problems of 
democracy. It must enlist the personal devotion of our young people 
to the welfare of democracy, at once by showing them how inextric- 
ably their own happiness is involved in this welfare, and by appealing 
to their idealism, dominant in adolescence as at no other period. As 
the enacting clause of its instruction and of its emotional and ethical 
appeals it must train in those skills that shall make the knowledge 
and devotion dynamic in producing a better democratic social order. 

The high school has an unparalleled opportunity to develop this 
devotion and these skills. Its problems are real — not make-beiieve ; 
the welfare of the group depends upon cooperation and demands the 
subordination of individual to group interests; the responsibility and 
authority of the group must be delegated to leaders; indeed, the suc- 
cess of the school depends upon a high standard of intelligence, con- 
science, and skill in solving the problems of the school community. 

The purpose of democratic cooperation. It can not be too strongly 
emphasized that the purpose of democratic cooperation in solving 
school problems is not merely either discipline or better management 
of details. There is scant evidence that democracy is more efficient 
than is despotism at its best. The advantages of democracy are 
largely spiritual, and the beneficent results of democratic school 
administration are to be found in habits of thought, feeling, and ac 
tion rather tlban in mere conformity to rules. However efficient its 
organization and its instruction in mere subject matter, the American 
high school fails in its most important function if it fails to develop 
the qualities of good democratic citizenship. 



96 

Student participation in school government. When we apply this 
philosophy, we must give the student activities of the school a place 
of prime importance. The first and perhaps the most important ac- 
tivity is student participation in the government of the school. The 
specific form of organization and the details of administration are 
relatively unimportant. The clarity of the purpose in the minds of 
both school authorities and student body and the spirit of devotion 
10 the ideals of democracy will determine its success. 

Pyramid of responsibilities. At the outset everyone involved 
should clearly understand that the legally constituted authorities 
of the school do not resign an iota of power or responsibility. 
The people elect a board of school directors who in turn elect a super- 
intendent, a principal, and teachers. Responsibility for conducting 
the school rests upon these professional servants of the public. If 
they can train for citizenship better by sharing their responsibilities, 
they may share them; they have no legal or moral right to surrender 
them. The superintendent, the principal, and the teacher, therefore. 
each in his appropriate sphere, should always stand ready to reclaim 
any delegated authority and to veto any action of the student organi- 
zation. 

Gradual introduction of .student participation. The honored prin- 
ciple of learning to do by doing applies in student participation in 
Hie management of a school. While the fundamental principles al- 
ready set forth should be clearly understood,' it is probably better 
to proceed slowly with their application. After a tine spirit of loyal 
ty to the school as a cooperative community has been established, the 
challenge — "Can the student body do this for the school?" will meet 
with heart}' and well-intentioned response. Even then, much skillful 
guidance is necessary. Success in a small etiort such as the manage- 
ment of a student assembly or the orderly conduct of the corridors 
under student direction marks much greater progress than an 
elaborate organization with a formal constitution, by-laws, and of- 
ficers. The moment of assured success is the time for increased 
responsibility. Organization should come in response to an evident 
need rather than in anticipation of a possible use. In this way the 
public opinion and sentiment of the school grows with the movement 
and makes its success inevitable. In the democracy of a school as of 
a state, public opinion is the court of last resort. In a school it may 
become so well unified and so directly potent that few will care to go 
counter to its mandates. 

Dangers. One of the first dangers of a school democracy is the 
development of too strong partizanship and its incidental bossism. 
The worst form of this partizanship is found when the cleavage ap- 
pears along racial or sectarian lines. A school democracy can hardly 



97 

survive a persistent cleavage of this kind, and the alternative of the 
abandonment of this type of partizanship or of the experiment in 
student participation should be frankly faced. 

The danger of apathy or lack of interest is less serious than in 
the democracy of a state. Its appearance is generally an indication 
of-over-organization. The danger of pupils' assuming too great author- 
ity will not be likely to arise if there is a clear understanding of the 
principles discussed above under the heading of The Pyramid of 
responsibilities. A very real complaint may come from the pupils 
if the student organization appears to be only a clever device for 
carrying out the adroit suggestions of the principal. Genuine 
student participation will be fertile in the initiation of really help- 
ful measures that often do not occur to the best professional minds. 

By-products. Among the salutary results of successful student 
participation comes a complete change in the traditional relation- 
ships of students and faculty. With the assumption of police re- 
sponsibilities by the students, the cordial and natural relationship 
of teacher and pupils are promoted. In the interest of a larger and 
better democracy probably no result is so valuable as the training 
of leaders. Many a principal has been amazed to see the student 
leader command an enthusiastic loyalty to a principle or measure 
that would have met a cold reception if presented by the official 
himself. Problems of discipline under successful student participa- 
tion are prevented rather than solved. The real reason, however, 
for any such system lies in the development of the intelligence, the 
conscience, and the skill appropriate to a democratic social order 
that must result if the scheme is a success. 

Democratizing the -faculty. Democratic school organization for 
the students logically carries with it democratic organization for 
the faculty. Again without surrendering any official prerogative, 
the principal develops cooperation, initiative, and responsiblity on 
the part of his faculty. He delegates functions which he thereafter 
touches only through his appointee. Without "going to sleep at the 
switch" he makes sure that the train takes the right track; at the 
same time he never touches the lever personally. Thus by enlisting 
all of the. best intellectual and spiritual energies of a group of highly 
educated people, we prove again that the whole is greater than any 
of its parts. Lack of 1his cooperation in many schools makes the 
whole much less than the sum of its parts. 

The principal. In all this the principal must be the leader and 

inspirer. If he lacks vision, sympathy, personality, or patriotism any 

scheme of democratization will probably be futile. No scheme of 

student participation will succeed without the loyalty and enthusiasm 

(T 



98 

of the faculty and the student body, and these qualities are not likely 
to be commanded by a principal who could not run an efficient school 
of the benevolent despotism type. The plan is recommended not 
because it will save work although it will remove many disagree- 
able duties. Its value, however, lies in developing in the youth of 
our democracy the understanding, the conscience, and the skill essen- 
tial to the well-being of our social order. 

Other school activities. A thoroughly democratized school will 
teem with social activities. In addition to the usual school paper, 
orchestra and athletics it will have many clubs devoted to all sorts 
of interests — literary, dramatic, artistic, scientific, scouting, mathe- 
matical, political, social, etc., as listed on page 111. 

The following outline is given as a suggestion that may be help- 
ful in further developing this valuable phase of s?hool service. 

An outline for school activities. 

Guiding Principles: 

1. The spirit of the school largely determines its efficiency as a 
social institution. 

2. A school activities period provides a controlled environment for 
the development and expression of a dynamic spirit of loyalty to 
community interests. 'All school activities should be controlled 
by faculty participation and cooperation. 

3. The development of individual and group idealism depends up- 
on the attractiveness of the ideals when presented and the oppor- 
tunities afforded for them to become established in habits and skills. 

4. The American public school must, develop the intellectual and 
emotion-d habits and the skill in cooperative activity essential to a 
democracy if our democratic government and social order are to 
endure. 

A School Creed: To train for democracy the school must be a de- 
mocracy, 

I School Slogan: Po-in-eooperation. 

Organized activities essential. 

The Department strongly favors the organization of school activi- 
ties and the gradual introduction of student participation in the 
administration and discipline of the secondary s -hoots for the de- 
finite purpose of training in the principles and practices of de- 
mocracy. 

School activities are included as an integral part of the program of 
studies for all junior high schools as one of the requirements for 
classification. Each junior high school should, therefore, plan for 



99 

some school activities in connection with the original organization 
of the school. This program is planned for junior high schools, 
senior high schools, or six-year high schools. 

It is therefore requested that forms of organization which have 
been successfully carried out, and also criticisms and suggestions of 
the present tentative outline, and particularly adaptions of the pro- 
gram to small schools be reported to the Department. It is the pur- 
pose of the Department to be helpful to all schools in the fullest 
possible measure and to act as a clearing house for the state- wide 
publicity of successful experiments in school socialization and school 
activities carried on in widely separated parts of the State. 

The School Activities Period 

The daily program. At least a six-hour school day, with six clock- 
hour periods is recommended where such an organization is possible. 
This arrangement is not essential as a basis for the introduction of 
an activities period. Four of these periods arc dev ited generally to 
the four major studies (1) English (2) mathematics, (3) social 
studies, (4) science and geography. Students taking a foreign lan- 
guage will generally take less than a full four year course in mathe- 
matics and science. A fifth period is devoted to fine and practical 
arts and guidance. The sixth period should be divided into a fifteen- 
minute period for devotional exercises at the beginning of the morn- 
ing session and a forty-five minute period for organized school ac- 
tivities. Same schools are providing a devotional exercise period 
from N:-ir> to 9:00 o'clock with three one-hour periods from 9:00 to 
12:00 and three from 1:00 to 4:00. Particularly the smaller rural 
and township schools will find this advisable. 

1. Time allotment adapted to size of school. In smaller schools the 
sixth period may be required in part for the practical working out 
of the daily roster of the curricular requirements. There should be 
no hesitation in using the sixth period for this purpose in the small 
school of four to six or eight teachers; it is a concession to practical 
necessity. 

The minimum time allotment for school activities in any school 
should be two periods a week. On the other three days of the week 
the sixth period may be used for additional time in spelling, penman- 
ship, music, art, practical arts, coaching, or other special activities 
in the program of studies. A typical daily program for a four- 
teacher junior high school, including seventh to tenth years, will be 
sent upon request to the Department. 

For schools having fewer than twenty teachers the maximum time 
should rarely exceed three periods, particularly at the inauguration 
of the plan of a school activities period. The maximum allotment for 



100 

the large school of over twenty teachers, after a year or two of de- 
velopment, should approximate five periods a week. No school, me- 
dium or large in size, should hesitate to extend the time allotment 
for activities when it is evident that such activities have actual edu- 
cational value and will not cause a sacrifice in regular curricular 
requirements. 

2. Home-room period. Each school should inaugurate its activities 
with a home-room period. It is vital that each class be assigned to a 
definite home room under the direction of a member of the teaching 
staff who becomes the home-room counselor. Members of the faculty 
not so assigned should be designated as associate home-room coun- 
selors to act as cooperative agents with the home-room teachers. In 
addition to the brief daily contact of home-room class and teacher, 
one activities period a week should be set aside when pupils and 
teachers may meet as a home-room unit. 

Administrative routine work (absences, reports, etc.) should con- 
sume only a minimum of the weekly home-room period. The maxi- 
mum time of the period should be devoted to the work of the home- 
room teacher as the class counselor, particularly in guidance. Con- 
stant diligence must be exercised to prevent absorption of the time 
by administrative routine. Definite planning for the activities sug- 
gested in the outline below will assure the realization of the greater 
purpose which is the only justification of a weekly home-room period. 

A guidance period once a week is suggested in the first two years 
of the junior high school program of studies. This guidance should 
include educational and vocational information. It is class-room 
instruction. On the other hand, the guidance of the home-room 
period is more personal ; almost wholly administrative in purpose. 
It is personal direction to assure that guidance becomes individual. 
It further extends guidance to matters of a social and moral nature 
which are concerns of the home-room group. This distinction be- 
tween informational guidance for the class and personal guidance 
for the individual in the home room can apply always in the larger 
schools. In the smaller schools the home-room guidance may neces- 
sarily have to include both types of guidance, particularly when guid- 
ance periods and home-room periods can nnt both be provided in the 
weekly roster. 

3. Cooperative pupil government. When pupil participation in 
school government is inaugurated, the home room should become the 
initial unit. The class officers, elected by the class, should participate 
in class control and in the home-room activities under the guidance 
of the home-room teacher. This preliminary training in pupil co- 
operative government in the small, closely supervised class unit is 
imperative in preparation for participation in the larger democracy 
of the entire school. 



101 

The federation of home-room classes into an organized school com- 
munity should be deferred until the class-unit participation has be- 
come established. The federation of all classes into a school com- 
munity, with its pupil council, committees of pupils for general 
school control, e. g., lunch room, playground, corridors, assemblies, 
etc., should come as a natural and logical outgrowth of the demon- 
strated power of the pupil democracy to expand from the home-room 
>r local cooperative government to the school community or federated 
cooperative government. The latter is ultimately desirable, but the 
former is initially fundamental. There is a natural sequence in the 
training of pupils to participate in school control which can not be 
disregarded without serious risk of overloading untrained adolescent 
youth with responsibilities beyond its powers. 

Small schools devoting only two periods to activities should alter- 
nate the home-room activities (See home-room period below) with 
class meetings (See pupil cooperative government below). Larger 
schools should, in time, provide a separate period for each of the two 
activities as suggested in the following outlines. 

4. School assemblies and clubs. The second period in the minimum 
organization of school activities should be devoted to assemblies and 
clubs. Small schools should alternate the two (See assembly and 
clubs in outline below). Schools of medium size, between six or 
eight and tAventy teachers, should adopt some plan of alternating ac 
tivities as suggested in the summary immediately following. Larger 
schools, with twenty or more teachers, should gradually develop a 
daily period for school activities. 

All schools should provide assembly programs from the beginning 
and should include clubs in the organized activities program as soon 
as clubs have developed to the extent of including the majority of the 
pupils. Prior to this time, clubs will accompany the development of 
other school activities as extra-curricular and after-school activities. 
When the pupils request a club organization for all, and when 
teachers are prepared voluntarily to undertake club leadership, clubs 
should become part of the weekly school roster. Each pupil, then, 
should be required to elect one club annually or semi-annually. 

5. Summary of time allotment : 

a. Small schools (Four to eight teachers) 

Two periods : 

(1) Home-room period and class meetings alternating 

(2) Assemblies and clubs alternating 

b. Medium size schools (Six or eight to twenty teachers) 

Three periods: 





First Week 


(1) 


Home-room period 


(2) 


Assembly 


(3) 


Clubs 




Third Week 


(1) 


Home-room perioi 


(2) 


Assembly 


(3) 


Clubs 



102 

Second Week 

(1) Home-room period 

(2) Class meeting 

(3) Clubs 

Fourth Week 

1 (1) Class meeting 

(2) Assembly 

(3) Clubs 

c. Large schools (Twenty or more teachers) 
Five periods : 

(1) Home-room period 

(2) Cooperative pupil government (Class meetings) 

(3) Assemblies 

(4) Clubs 

(5) Faculty activities (See complete outline) 

Adaptation. An imperative need. 

Small schools should select from Part ill of this outline such 
suggested activities as are best adapted to their facilities, their 
shorter time allotment, the needs and abilities of pupils, and the 
experience and capacities of teachers with their comparatively 
heavier classroom duties. 

All schools should accept the following outline as purely sug- 
gestive. It will be a serious error to adopt, without modification, 
any formal plan. School activities in each school should reflect 
the personality of the pupil-body, the faculty, and the organized 
school community. Democratic participation is the outward ex- 
pression of the internal social life of each school. Therefore, the 
best organization in operation elsewhere may not be adapted to 
the needs of a particular school. 

Faculty Activities Period 

The need of professional study. There is peculiar need for pro- 
fessional study by all high school teachers. In junior high schools, 
for example, there are few teachers today who were, prior to their 
service, specifically trained for junior high school work. It is par- 
ticularly true of the junior high school that its teachers are trained 
through service. While the junior high school is in the experi- 
mental stage, it demands constant professional alertness on the part 
of all participating in its evolution. Furthermore, the problems of 
reconstruction in organization, program of studies, courses of study, 
socialization, and general administration are beyond the powers of 
any one leader or administrative group in any one school. Coopera- 
tion of the faculty in all junior high school problems is. therefore, 
an imperative need. 



103 

The rapid readjustment of secondary education to the changing 
concepts of its fundamental purposes makes a similar study equal- 
ly essential for principals and teachers of senior high schools. Con- 
sequenty it is earnesly urged that all high school faculties, both 
junior and senior, small and large, undertake some professional 
study as a local group. In a six-hour school day, this faculty ac- 
tivity should not be organized as an after-school program. It de- 
mands a degree of enthusiasm and earnestness impossible to 
exhausted physical and mental conditions following a long school 
day. 

It is recommended that once a week in schools with six-hour daily 
schedules pupils be dismissed for the last morning period and that 
the time for professional study be taken from school hours. 

In the small schools, where practical arts or fine arts are taught 
by part-time instructors, the regular teachers will be relieved of 
classroom control. This free time affords a most favorable op- 
portunity for a faculty program in professional study. Other sug- 
gestions will be given in the outline below. 

Cautions 

The first and second days, etc.. in the following outline have 
no significance as to the days of the week. (The five days com- 
prise a week's program. Suggestions are given above for alternat- 
ing activities in small schools. Each school activities period should 
be placed on the day of the week and at the time of day best suited 
to the school. All activities periods should be part of the school 
day, particularly so when the school day equals or exceeds six 
o'ock hours exclusive of the luncheon period. 

It will be noted that the following outline makes reference to 
three types of pupil-body meetings,"" viz ; devotional or opening ex- 
ercises, school community meetings, and assemblies. The first is 
the daily opening period of 10 to 15 minutes; the program usually 
includes scripture reading, singing, and announcements. No pro- 
gram of school activities should be permitted to replace this long- 
established practice. 

The school community meeting is a monthly assembly of all home- 
room classes as a federated school community under the immediate 
ciharge of pupil officers. The school assembly is a weekly program 
of 45 to 60 minutes in length under the charge of the assembly com- 
mittee suggested in the following outline. In the small schools 
bimonthly school assemblies alternate with bimonthly club meet 
ings. In all schools the usual opening exercise period may be ex- 
tended into a 45 to 60 minute period for either the monthly school 



104 

community meeting or the weekly assembly. Tt may be advisable 
to omit the assembly period in the week when a pupils' community 
meeting is held. 

A final icord of cant ion. Extreme care must be exercised from 
the start that the development of any activity, at any stage of the 
progress, does not exceed the pupils' abilities to participate nor the 
teachers' experience to direct their own and the pupils' partici- 
pations. 

• 

The purpose of this chapter will be wholly misunderstood if it 
is interpreted as a suggested organization to be adopted in toto in 
any school. The chief aim is to direct attention to the educational 
gains arising from properly motivated school activities. For this 
reason no attempt to inaugurate an activities program should be 
made until the objectives as set forth in Part 1 of this chapter are 
accepted fully in principle by both faculty and student body. Any 
form of organization should, therefore, be preceded by two prelimi- 
nary stages: first, a study by the faculty of the objectives of school 
activities, i. e., definite aims which will inspire enthusiasm; second, 
a study of the local needs and opportunities for pupil participation 
which, because of their genuineness, will inspire respect. Only when 
these two stages have been passed will it be safe or wise to under- 
take organization. Two cautions should be scrupulously observed 
in all stages of organization. First, organization must be adapted 
to local conditions. Variation from the organization suggested in 
Part III is both desirable and necessary if socialization of each 
school is a true reflection of its social life. Second, organization 
should proceed one step at a time. The success of each activity 
should be assured before another is attempted. A complete organiza- 
tion should be a gradual development extending over a period of two 
or more years. 

Wfhen school activities have degenerated into ceremonial form, they 
have become ho^ow shams as an agency to create school morale, to 
train pupils effectively in social cooperation and citizenship, or to 
develop the personal powers of initiative and leadership. When 
school activities cease to inspire the enthusiastic support of faculty 
and pupils, the activities should be reenlivened, replaced, or aban- 
doned. The need for periodical stimulus is charateristic of any or- 
ganization. These periods are the critical stages of school activities. 
They must be anticipated by as purposeful efforts as will attend the 
initial stages of organization. It will be noted that in Part III pro- 
visions are suggested to the end of maintaining interest and en- 
thusiasm in the actual operation of school activities. 



105 

THE SCHOOL ACTIVITIES PERIOD— A SUG- 
GESTED OUTLINE 

First Day — Home-Room Period 

J. Leadership. Homeroom and associate home-room counselors — 
pupils as appointed by counselors or by the class. 
Participants: Teachers and pupils. 

2. Activities. 

a. Records of attendance. Administrative reports. 

b. Announcements of school activities and communications to 
pupils from principal or faculty members. 

c. Arrangements for class participation in school campaigns and 
other general school activities. 

d. Cooperation with subject teachers in matters of school work 
and deportment. 

e. Creation and maintenance of class standards in classroom 
work, home-room and school service, conduct, courtesy, and 
loyalty. 

f. Guidance by homeroom and associate home-room counselors. 
Stimulation of class and pupil participation in all guidance 
activities. Freedom for personal questions of pupils. Dis- 
cussion of subject electives in their significance to the in- 
dividual. Personal and social guidance. Encouragement of 
an atmosphere of understanding and sympathy. 

g. School banking under pupil management, with close faculty 
supervision. 

?*. Suggestions. 

a. Many interruptions to classroom time, by way of notices, etc., 
may be avoided by using this period for a weekly opportunity 
to make announcement. 

b. Exclusive administrative routine in this period will produce 
an attitude of apathy which will defeat the greater aims of 
the period. 

c. The associate home-room counselor should be invited to share 
in the program of the period and occasionally to take charge 
of the program. 

d. The counselor must be convinced that no greater service to 
the pupils is possible than in this activities period. The 
secret of the effectiveness of the home-room period lies in the 
counselor's enthusiasm for its opportunities. A set program 
of formal routine, nnv other line of least resistance, or in- 
difference of any nature will defeat every objective of the 
period. 



106 

Second Day — Cooperative Pupil Government 

1. Leadership. Class officers 

2. Participants. Members of the home-room class. 
Counselor and associate non-participating advisers. 

o. Activities. 

a. Home-room class unit under direction of home-room teacher. 
Election of class officers to hold office at option of school for 
a semester or a year. 

b. Federation of class units in a socialized school community. 

(1) First "bimonthly class meeting. Short bimonthly busi- 
ness meeting conducted under parliamentary law. Mo- 
tions affecting class or school interests, discussion, and 
action by vote. Formalities of parliamentary practice 
observed for concrete lessons in established law and 
order and the rule of the majority. 

A program committee of pupils should be appointed by 
the president. Following the short business meeting, 
the chairman of the program committee should preside. 
The committee, with the guidance of the home-room 
counselor, should arrange a class program ten days in 
advance and make appointments for pupil participation. 
Program topics should be common to all classes, irre- 
spective of grades, and should be articulated with audi- 
torium programs ; e. g., school campaigns, thrift pro- 
gram, "Better English" program, review of current 
events, dramatization, guidance program, etc. The ap- 
peal of the assembly program is to the cooperative sup- 
port of the pupil body. The appeal of the class pro- 
gram is to cooperative participation by the members 
of the class. 

(2) Monthly group meeting of class officers. Officers hold- 
ing the same office in the class units should be organized 
into a group ; viz., a cabinet of presidents,, a council of 
vice-presidents, etc. Each group should elect its own 
presiding officer, secretary, etc. By virtue of the elec- 
tion in this small group, the presiding officer of the 
presidents should become the school-community presi- 
dent; the presiding officer of the secretary-treasurers, 
the school-community secretary-treasurer, etc. 

Each group should be under the guidance of a faculty- 
director, the principal acting as faculty director of the 
cabinet of presidents and appointing faculty directors 
for other groups. There should be instruction in the 



107 

duties of the office by the faculty director. Problems 
confronting any or all of the officers should be frankly 
discussed. Opportunity should be offered for any officer 
to present methods of improving the service either ac- 
tually tried out or proposed. The group meetings pro- 
vide to cooperative pupil government the opportunity 
for a progressive development in modifications of prac- 
tice as suggested by experience, and in further develop- 
ment of the service given by each group. 

When the officers are in session, the non-officer mem- 
bers of the class should be under the direction of the 
home-room teacher; the time may be used for guidance, 
conference with the home-room or subject teachers, study 
in the home room, chorus singing in the assembly, or any 
other activity including the non-officer pupils in part or 
in whole. 

(3) Second bimonthly class meeting. This meeting is held 
in the week following the group meetings of class officers. 
The class president should preside. Each class officer 
should make a report of the proceedings of the respec- 
tive group meetings— recommendations of the group 
officer, suggestions for improvement in cooperative pupil 
government, statement of pupil-officer duties, and plans 
for more effective cooperation of class members with 
pupil officers. Each class officer should review the 
month's record of tihe class in cooperative pupil govern- 
ment so far as compliance by the class in the functions 
of the respective class officer is concerned. The officer 
should recommend plans for improvement. Both com- 
mendation and criticism should be made. If need 
be the officer should appeal for class action by vote upon 
his suggestions. The second bimonthly class meeting 
is the monthly opportunity for the developing of a 
wholesome and enthusiastic support of the cooperative 
pupil government. 

(4) School community meeting. There should be a month- 
ly auditorium meeting of all home rooms under the 
charge of school-community officers. The presiding 
officers of the several groups and the faculty directors 
should form an executive committee with the principal 
as chairman to arrange programs. The presiding of- 
ficer of the cabinet of class presidents should preside at 
the school-community meeting as the school-community 
president. There should be a formal installation of of- 



108 

ficers of the school-community officers, i. e., the pre- 
siding officers of the groups. The school-community 
president should address the pupil body at his instal- 
lation; other officers should follow. These addresses 
should be appeals to the pupil body for loyalty and co- 
operative service and should give in clear detail the 
functions of the office which the speaker represents. 
School campaigns and general school projects may be 
most effectively launched at these school-community 
meetings. By the power of example, proficiency and 
ability will be developed in pupil leadership, upon which 
reliance may be safely placed for the effective inaugu- 
ration of general school activities. There will be created 
in time a confidence in pupil leadership which will far 
exceed the most sanguine expectations of any faculty 
not experienced in this type of cooperative pupil parti- 
cipation and leadership in school activities. 

( 5 ) Pupil council. This may be composed of the home-room 
class presidents, or, in a large school, of the pupil chair- 
men of the groups of class officers. It should constitute 
an advisory body to the principal. Its functions should 
be to articulate the activities of the pupil body. Its re- 
ports and recommendations should be made in a school 
assembly. 

(6) School-community committees, bureaus, commissions, 
etc. These may be determined by the needs of the school. 
Upperclassmen should generally be appointed or elected 
to membership. These organizations would include a staff 
for the school paper, and athletic committee of manage- 
ment, corridor traffic squad, current events bulletin 
board committee, playground control committee, lunch- 
room committee, bicycle-room committee, safety-first 
bureau, school sanitation committee, visitors' commit- 
tee, and any other adaptation of outside community 
practice which can be helpful in school administration 
and contributory to pupil training. 

Temporary committees should be appointed for the man- 
agement of temporary activities, e. g., school campaigns, 
entertainments, athletic contests, social events, etc. 

4. Suggestion. Leadership in the school community organization is 
properly restricted to older pupils. It is, therefore, limited to a 
comparative few. It is the culmination of cooperative pupil 
government. In some form it should exist in every school. Too 



100 

frequently, however, organization as a whole completely over- 
shadows or replaces the more essential class-room participation. 
The vitue of the latter is its more fundamental nature and its 
opportunities for larger numbers to participate. 

Third Day — School Assembly 

1. Leadership. An assembly committee of the faculty including 
principal or administrative assistant, dramatics teacher, and a 

representative of the music department, as permanent personnel, 
together with other faculty members annually appointed by the 
principal, and pupil representatives appointed or elected annually. 

2. Participants. Pupils of school. Occasionally, as necessity re- 
quires, members of the faculty, and rarely, as courtesy demands, 
outside speakers. 

3. Activities: 

a. School campaigns and other general school activities launched 
in assemblies. Eeports of progress and results. 

b. Demonstrations of class work in all subjects: Socialized 

recitations, supervised study lessons, guidance class work. 

c. Demonstrations of school activities. Class meetings, clubs, 
orchestra, staff of school paper, home-room class meetings, 
the school library. 

d. Participation in community, city, state, national or inter- 
national welfare activities. Junior Red Cross activities. 
Modern health crusades. 

e. Observance of state and national holidays. 

f. School plays, written by pupils or adapted, short but regular- 
ly occuring dramatizations relating to school campaigns, the 
guidance program of the school, and other school projects. 

g. Visual instruction. Use of specimens, collections of pictures, 
lantern and moving picture apparatus operated if permissible 
and lectures given by pupils. 

b. Awards of school and other prizes, banners, etc., to indivi- 
duals, to classes, or to school. 

4. Suggestions: 

a. The school assembly should become the school forum where 
classes find social coherence; it should both originate and 
maintain the school spirit. 
b. Unity and loyalty. The class meetings, the group meetings, 
the club, and the school assembly should provide a natural 
growth from the consciousness of a class or group unity to 
the consciousness of a school unity and to the larger corpor- 
ate unity of neighborhood, town, city, etc. 



110 

c. A spirit of service and sacrifice should permeate the whole 
school life by standards established in the assembly. 

d. Pupils should sense a personal proprietorship in the assem 
blies. This can develop only as participation becomes prac- 
tically their exclusive privilege. Latent powers in the many 

^ should not be sacrificed to the demonstrated powers of the 

few. The principal should set a democratic example by ask- 
ing a member of the faculty or a pupil chairman to preside. 
An assembly program devoted to an address by the principal 
or visitor or to performances by "star" pupils, though oc- 
casionally unavoidable, is robbing adolescent youth of their 
right to training in public speaking, leadership, initiative, 
self-possession, executive powers, and cooperation with their 
associates. 

Fourth Day — Clubs 

1. Leadership. An "Executive Committee of Clubs'' appointed by 
the principal, responsible for organization and adminstration of 
all club activities. A faculty club leader, appointed by the 
executive committee, responsible for activities of each club. 

2. Participants. Pupils on a basis of voluntary choice of club, 
irrespective of grade, home room, or curriculum classification; 
faculty loader also on a basis of voluntary choice in club leader- 
ship, irrespective of classroom teaching. Pupil cooperative 
management of club activities under guidance of faculty leader. 
Club elections of pupils and faculty confirmed by executive com- 
mittee; club management under administrative direction of com- 
mittee. 

3. Activities. Any activity with an avocational, a recreational, a 
social service, a civic, a moral, a vocational, or any other educa- 
tional value in adolescent training. Any activity which will 
"teach pupils to do better the desirable activities that they will 
perform anyway". Any activity which will assure "so much 
of good to do that the bad can not creep in." Any activity in 
school hours which will replace the pursuit of a harmful outside 
activity. The substitution of a wholesome activity must accom- 
pany the denial of the gratification of an unwholesome activity. 
Any activity for the adolescent youth which has the sanction of 
accepted adult practice in avocational pursuits. Club activities 
for the adolescent age as varied as the non-vocational interests 
of adult life. The school club is both motivation and training 
for adult choice of leisure time occupation. Any activity which 
will train for the "worthy use of leisure", one of the seven main 
objectives of education is desirable. 



in 

Partial List of Clubs. Airplane, Athletic (Boys), Athletic 
(Girls), Basketry, Better Community, Bird, Bird House, 
Boys Series, Camera, Camp Craft, Campfire Girls, Cartooning, 
Chemistry, Crochet, Crop, Dairy, Debating, Dramatic, Embroi- 
dery, Ernest Thompson-Seton, Farm Craft, First Aid, Flower, 
Gardening, Folk Song and Dance, Forestry, Foreign Language, 
Handicraft, Home Beautification, Home Economics, Home Nurs- 
ing, Illustrators, Junior Chamber of Commerce, Kipling, Kite, 
Knitting, Know Your City. Landscape Gardening, Laundry, 
Library, Live Stock, Machinists, Martha Washington, Masonry, 
Military, Millinery, Musical Appreciation, Mythology, News- 
paper, Orchestra, Pottery, Poultry, Public Speaking, Puzzle 
Radio, Led Cross, Reporters, Santa Glaus, Scrap Book, Senior 
Corps (Boys), Senior Corps (Girls), Short Story, Small Animal, 
Social Hour, Stamp, Story Telling, Success, Swimming (Boys), 
Swimming (Girls), Tatting, Travel and Exploration^Tree Man- 
agement, Vegetable Gardening, Violin (Beginners), Violin (Inter- 
mediate), Violin (Advanced), Wood, Wild Animal, Wild Flower, 
Willing Workers, Wireless Builders. 

4. Suggestions: 

a. Scope of club list. Two conditions determine the organiza- 
tion of any club; first, enough pupils interested in the club 
project to form the group, and second, a member of the 
faculty interested in the siiine project to act as club director. 
Tin 1 club list given is suggestive only. 

b. Club membership. Since the club hour is part of the school 
day, membership in some club should be required of each 
pupil. For the same reason, club leadership as director or 
assistant director, or club administration should be required 
of practically every member of the faculty. 

c. Functions of executive committee. Organization of each 

club — assignment of members and appointment of faculty 

director. 

Administration of all clubs 
Supervision of all club activities 

Direction of club assemblies, faculty discussions, and annual 
club exhibit 

Preparation of club program — list of clubs with objectives, 
projects, and conditions of membership 
Presentation of program to facultv and minil body 
Stimulation of club visits to civic and public welfare insti- 
tutions, to industrial plants, and other field excursions. 
Direction of all club publicity. 



112 

Fifth Day — Faculty Activities 

1. Leadership. Principal 

2. Participant*. Faculty 
Activities. 



• >. 



a. Demonstration of any classroom activity in English, foreign 
language, mathematics, social studies, science and geog- 
raphy, health, music, art, practical arts, commercial work, 
library instruction, guidance class work, etc. 

All pupils except those giving demonstrations should be dis- 
missed during the faculty activities period. 
In all demonstrations the faculty should represent visitors 
to the classroom. If the seating capacity of the classroom 
is inadequate, the demonstration should be given in the as- 
sembly or another room with adequate seating for class and 
faculty. 

b. Demonstrations of supervised study and socialized recita- 
tions. Following the demonstration the class should be dis- 
missed. Either after the dismissal of the class or a subse- 
quent faculty meeting, an opportunity should be provided 
for a general discussion. The teacher in charge of the dem- 
onstration, the principal, a supervisor, or a director should 
lead the discussion. The principal should be in general 
charge of the program. He should, however, have a faculty 
program committee serve with him in organizing the pro- 
gram. He should frequently withdraw as presiding chair- 
man and delegate this function to an associate. A suggest- 
ive program on supervised study will be submitted upon re 
quest. 

A series of demonstrations upon the same general topic 
should occasionally be arranged in a consecutive program, 
interspersed with papers, discussions, or informal talks. 
The program may be extended over a semester or a year. 

c. Demonstration of any school activity— a home-room class 
meeting, a pupil officer group meeting, a club meeting, etc. 
A presentation of the purpose should precede the demonstra- 
tion. A general discussion with questions should follow. 

d. Faculty visits to given departments, e. g., a scheduled pro- 
gram of visits by groups of the faculty, on one occasion to 
an industrial arts department with all shops in session; on 
another occasion to a home economics department, with sew- 
ing, cooking, millinery, laundry rooms, etc. in operation: to 
a commercial department with bookkeeping, commercial 



113 

mathematics, typewriting classes, etc. in session; to an Eng- 
lish and foreign language department and to any other sub- 
ject group department. 

e. Faculty visits to single rooms by the subject teachers of the 
department, e. g., all science teachers visiting one science 
teacher and class, all shop instructors observing the work of 
one shop, etc. A series of simultaneous faculty visits in 
groups determined by the particular subject interest of the 
group. 

f. Presentation to the faculty of any educational interest in the 
school by the individual in charge. Presentation of any 
educational interest" common to all schools by city, borough, 
or county superintendent, or by a supervisor or director of 
any subject or department. Presentation of any civic or 

social interest with which the school is or should be affiliated 
by the chief executive officer or representative. 

g. Conference of teachers by subject groups. The conference 
should be devoted to discussion of the courses of study, meth- 
ods of instruction, classroom processes, lesson plans, equip- 
ment, etc. 

li. Discussion of problems of organization and administration. 
The problem should be presented by the principal or by an 
associate. There should be free discussion. When the deci- 
sion may be delegated, action in the proposed solution of the 
problem should be by majority vote. Tne faculty should 
usually be consulted in an advisory capacity. 

i. Professional study. Programs should be prepared by princi- 
pal, with administrative or supervisory associates or with a 
committee of the faculty. Each committee delegated with 
responsibility for the investigation and report of a sub-topic 
should be allowed freedom of initiative and conference as a 
committee. The chairman should make assignments for 
study and should determine the form and method of report 
to the faculty. The formal report to the faculty of each 
sub-committee's investigation should be under the direct 
charge of the committee, with the chairman as presiding 
officer of the faculty meeting. The report upon each sub- 
topic should be followed by a general discussion of all mem- 
bers of the faculty. 

The professional study may be undertaken as a university 
extension course. A large faculty may be registered as a 
university extension class. Two or more smaller faculties 



114 

may combine for the same purpose. The place and time of 
the meetings may then be determined at the convenience of 
the members. The registration for the class will be largely 
increased by reason of convenience of time and place to the 
members. It is suggested that the university instructor con- 
duct the course, not on a lecture basis, but as indicated 
above on the basis of assignments, reports, and discussions. 
A suggestive program on guidance will be submitted on re- 
quest. Other suggestive programs on the junior high school 
will also be submitted on request. 

4. Suggestions. 

a. Type of meeting. A faculty meeting should be a teachers' 
meeting, not an audience of teachers to be addressed by the 
principal or a speaker appointed by him. An occasional 
faculty meeting conducted solely by the principal is unavoid- 
able. 

b. Democracy. The democracy of the school should find its 
origin and maintenance in the faculty relationship, partic- 
ularly in faculty meetings. 

c. Time. The faculty activities period should be part of the 
school activities. It should be the closing period of the 
morning, including 45 to GO minutes of school time. Meet- 
ings should be limited to one and a quarter hours; rarely 
should they equal or exceed one and a half hours, particular- 
ly in a weekly program of faculty meetings. In a six hour 
school day. a faculty meeting at the close of the day's ses- 
sion is seldom advisable. With the general adoption of a- 
longer school day, other educational practices must submit 
to change. 

d. Personal study. Teacher training may be inspired and 
directed by the lecture method, but it is achieved to a large 
extent by the personal study of teachers. The training that 
is carried over into practice in the classroom is the product 
of personal conviction coming from personal study. 

e. Pupils. During the faculty activities period the pupils 
should be dismissed. Parental protest will be as rare as it 

always has been when pupils are dismissed for teachers' in- 
stitutes. Where pupil activities involving a part or the 
whole of the pupil body can be safely intrusted to pupil direc- 
tion during the faculty activities period, this experiment 
should be attempted. But all such plans should be tenta- 



115 

tive, subject to a careful determination of their actual educa- 
tional value. 

f. Range of teacher contact irith program of studies. It fre- 
quently happens that departmental teaching results in a 
restricted and narrow vision on the part of subject teachers. 
There should, therefore, be a clear administrative purpose 
to acquaint all teachers with the work of the whole school. 
A complete democracy of faculty relationship and perfect 
freedom in the interchange of visits between teachers should 
exist. The faculty activities period provides the secondary 
school administrator with an opportunity to widen each 
teacher's range of contact with the whole program of studies. 

g. Routine notices to faculty. The principal should insist that 
all notices of a routine nature, including his own administra- 
tive routine, should be mimeographed and distributed to the 
faculty by circular letter. Lacking the facilities for mimeo- 
graphed circulars, notices and all other administrative de- 
tails should be posted upon the bulletin board. No member 
of the faculty should be excused for failure to comply with 
such notices by reason of neglect to be informed. This and 
any other administrative plan to economize time for the 
greater purposes of the faculty activities period should be 
adopted and persistently followed. 

h. Assignments to teachers. The willingness of teachers to ac- 
cept assignments in faculty programs, particularly in those 
involving personal appearances before the faculty, will come 
gradually but none the less surely. The principal should 
first choose those members of the faculty who have had ex- 
perience in speaking to an audience. By the power of the 
example of their associates the inexperienced will be per- 
suaded to participate. 

i. The executive leader. Careful deliberation and thoughtful 
consideration of the personal attributes of the faculty should 
characterize the principal's organization of all faculty pro- 
grams, particularly that of the first semester or year. Each 
succeeding program will demand less administrative concern 
in matters of personal inclination and will accordingly per- 
mit greater concentration of real leadership in the program 
itself. 






116 



\ 



117 



X. RELATIONS WITH LOWER AND HIGHER 

SCHOOLS 

Relations- with elementary schools. Resolution 9 quoted in the 
introduction of this manual places the responsibility for the educa- 
tion and training of all normal children of fourteen years of age or 
over on the high school. It is a fair implication that this responsi- 
bility should be assumed by the junior high school for children two 
years younger. 

This resolution is significant of the new conception which empha- 
sizes training and educating children rather than merely teaching 
subjects. It recognizes that the high school must not expect the 
children to be letter perfect in the content of the subjects taught in 
the lower schools. The meaning of much of the instruction in the 
fundamental operations will not be fully appreciated until the 
knowledge is applied in the high school. On the other hand, the 
high school — particularly the four-year high school — has a right to 
expect from the elementary school that children shall be able to read 
the English language with a fair degree of intelligence, to perforin 
the four fundamental operations in mathematics including common 
and decimal fractions with fair rapidity and accuracy, to write legib- 
ly, to recognize the parts of speech in idiomatic English, and to 
express themselves in both oral and written form so as to be clearly 
understood. Children who lack any of these powers should be placed 
by the high school in classes for intensive drill, but the work done in 
these classes should not be counted for high school credit. 

In many, perhaps in the majority of communities, it will not be 
possible at once to transfer to the high school all normal pupils of 
the ages described in this resolution. However, as the high schoofl 
becomes more and more an institution of democracy devoted to the 
task of training leaders and intelligent followers for our govern- 
mental and social older ; as its program of studies, its guidance pro- 
gram, and its administration become adapted to this social purpose 
rather than to instruction in subject matter alone, it will tend to 
include in its numbers all normal adolescents of the community 
and to adapt itself to their evident needs. 

Relations with colleges. The college is not usually a structural 
part of the program for public education. With some notable excep- 
tions, however, it is more and more coming to recognize that its 
function is to take the young people for whom the high school has 
done its best and to educate and train those who are prepared to 
profit by its instruction and are willing to make an honest effort 



118 

There is good reason to believe that the college is likely in the 
coming decade to seek its entering students on the basis of their 
ability to profit by college instruction rather than on tie basis 
of their pursuit of specific studies in the school. 

The conditions at the present moment of the transitional period 
are far from satisfactory. Both high school and college are badly 
crowded, and the colleges are reasonably seeking to select the best 
available material from the overwhelming number of their applicants. 
Among these applicants are many pupils with personal and parental 
ambitions beyond the ability of the young people. The colleges are 
wisely endeavoring to place their work on a basis of sound education 
rather than that of artificial and social values. They naturally 
deplore the deterioration in earnest effort and in ideals that has come 
from the prevalent fashion of "going to college". 

Many of the wisest leaders in the college are recognizing that the 
traditional college entrance requirements stated in specific subjects 
and measured by examinations which can be successfully met by 
intensive drills are not giving them the best possible selection of enter- 
ing students. Indeed, it is quite conceivable that no matter what 
specific requirements the colleges might make in subject matter, 
the possibilities of cramming in preparation for entrance require- 
ments would always result in the admission of many undesirable 
students. 

In Resolution 7 the high school men of the State have expressed 
their conviction that it is tlhe duty of the high school to serve first 
the great mass of its young people "ninety per cent of whom will 
not go to college". Yet the situation is such that the individual, 
principal often finds this almost impossible to do. The difficulty 
is not that the colleges are purposefully attempting to dictate to 
the high schools, but that traditions of educational values and of 
academic standards have not kept pace with the development of 
scientific educational theory. Coupled with this fact is a social and 
political condition that often makes the school practically helpless 
in its efforts to render better service to the majority of its clientele. 

The principal's problem. The concrete situation in all but the 
large city high school is something like this: Of the entering class 
the principal knows that one in ten will want to go to college. He 
does not know which individuals will make up the favored group 
What he does know, however, is that if any one of them is not pre- 
pared four years later to enter the college -of his choice, the school and 
its principal will be severely blamed. He knows that many of the 
liberal colleges are radically revising their entrance requirements, 
but he also knows that many others seriously believe that education 
.loses its best values when it is pursued for its practical application 



11» 

and that they, therefore, require from eight to eleven specific units in 
foreign languages and mathematics. The subjects required by this 
college entrance group are definite, specific, and well established in 
educational practice. Subjects most likely to be valuable to the nine- 
ty per cent are wide in variety and in some cases more or less ex- 
perimental. The non-college group is large, but its desires are neither 
clearly known nor forcibly expressed. If they are not gratified, the 
pupils simply vanish from the school, and the influential public is in- 
different to their departure or the reason for their going. The principal 
is the servant of the community. The influential group in the com- 
munity is the one from which the college students come — Ihe group 
whose dissatisfaction the principal will be ncide to feel most keenly. 
He can hardly be blamed, therefore, if in all cases involving possible 
doubt he advises pupils to take the course which will give no chance 
of unfavorable reaction because the pupil has chosen a course tlhat 
will not prepare him for the most exclusive college. 

The necessity of cooperation between high schools and colleges. 
The solution of this difficult problem can not come from recrimina- 
tion, ex cathedra pronouncements, or insistence upon inherited pre- 
judices. No one group is particularly to blame; the condition arises 
as a part of almost revolutionary changes in our social, economic, 
and educational institutions. It is most unfortunate that the 
college and the high school have not attacked the problem together 
and sought through mutual understanding and concession to help 
each other in furthering — each in its own field — the interests of 
education for a democracy. It is particularly unfortunate that the 
problem of the secondary school has so often been presented from 
the point of view of the private school rather than from that of the 
public high school. The private schools are in many cases rendering 
a most valuable service, but their social and political relationships 
and their entire outlook are quite different from those of the public 
high school. Whenever colleges have confused the interests of the 
two types of secondary schools, the ultimate solution of the problem 
has been delayed. 

.4 proper recognition of science. The hopeful view of the situation 
is seen in the tendency of many — indeed of the great majority — of the 
coeducational colleges and of the colleges for men to enlarge the 
list of subjects acceptable for college entrance and to diminish 
the specific requirements particularly in the lines of foreign 
languages and mathemetics. In carrying out this movement 
many colleges have come to the point where they will accept 
three or four units of science and an equal number of units of history 
and the social studies. These are undoubtedly the two lines, in 
which the high schools can offer the largest possibility of service l° 



120 

their commonwealths and communities and to the great mass of their 
students. Most of our first class high schools have good laboratory 
equipment and well prepared teachers. In spite of the high cost 
of teaching science in our high schools, the subject has always had 
the support of the communities. For the students who never go to 
college the study of several sciences is probably next to English and 
the social studies in its direct value as an interpretation of the life 
around them and as a basis for the work which they will have to do. 
Scientific courses almost invariably enlist the support of business 
men and of industrial leaders. Some of these science courses contain 
practical experiments that are not the less scientific because they are 
immediately applicable to life. For example: The Babcock milk 
test; the control of plant enemies, such as the potato blight; the 
control of bacteria in relation to food and health ; the transmission 
of electrical energy; and many other experiments lose none of their 
scientific or educational value because tihey are of vital importance 
in every-day life. 

History and the social studies. The value of history and the 
social studies grows out of the fundamental purpose of the high 
school in training citizens of a democracy. Whatever else the schools 
teach, they fail in their most vital function if they do not give to our 
young people an understanding of our civilization, its growth and 
development, and the fundamental laws governing its progress. The 
study of history has little concern with minute details and isolated 
facts; it should be primarily interested in those great institutions 
and those great movements which have determined our civilization 
and produced our present problems. It must appreciate the struggles 
of Anglo-Saxon civilization in evolving its present degree of liberty; 
it must understand such great movements as the Renaissance, the 
uprising of peoples in the French Revolution and succeeding similar 
movements, and the development of economic freedom working 
through the early stages of the industrial revolution down to the 
unsolved problems of today. 

Similarly the study of civics, economics, sociology, and political 
science must be applied to the problems of the day and must carry 
with it an intimate acquaintance with the men and measures of 
current interest. The tendency of the colleges in all these matters 
has been to fail to appreciate the fundamental purpose of these 
studies or at least to fail to emphasize the new spirit which has come 
into the instruction in the best high schools. 

Practical arts and vocational subjects. The high schools have 

found in thousands of cases that pupils can be saved for the school 

and for advanced education through various types of practical arts 

ind vocational instruction. These have not generally been recog- 



121 

nized for college entrance. Perhaps the most striking illustration 
of the value of this work is seen in the work in commercial subjects. 
In the study of shorthand, for example, the pupil is held to the most 
exacting mastery of intricate and technical phonetic signs. She 
is required in the early stages to master the making of these into 
word equivalents. She is soon required not only to know the word 
signs, but to know them quickly and to read back the dictation. A 
little later this dictation is coordinated with typewriting. The pupil 
goes to the stenography class, takes down the dictation, then goes 
to the typewriting class, sometimes after several periods when her 
memory will give her less aid, and reproduces the material on the 
typewriter. She recites every moment in both classes, and the test 
is absolutely infallible. She does her task, or she doesn't do it. She 
and her teacher know at once where the slightest error occurs. If 
the new interpretation of mental discipline which places prime value 
upon habits is correct, there is good reason to believe that shorthand 
is as valuable a subject as can be taught in the secondary school. 

Another change in high school administration long over-due seems 
likely to be consummated in the near future, and should be recog- 
nized in the reorganization of college entrance requirements. As 
noted elsewhere, the pupil whose major educational interest is music 
has had slight consideration for his paramount educational needs. 
Along with the recognition of music as a major subject of secondary 
education and the organization of a practical method of insuring 
satisfactory standards of effort and achievement in this important 
subject should go its acceptance as an integral element in prepara- 
tion for college. 

It is to be hoped that the colleges will recognize the decided 
changes that the last few years have produced in the personnel, the 
aims, the content of courses, and the methods of instruction in the 
high school ; and that admission to college will be based upon honest 
attainment in any field, coupled with ability to do college work, 
rather than upon specific high school grades or examinations in a 
restricted group of traditional subjects. There is good reason to 
believe that a readjustment is well under way. 

A table showing college entrance requirements. The following 
table shows the present conditions in a considerable number of 
colleges, including all those in Pennsylvania that make specific en- 
trance requirements. This will doubtless be of value to high school 
principals in the practical work of advising pupils concerning their 
college preparation. 

The subjects, both required and elective, are enumerated by units. 
In each case the minimum number of units is given. 

The electives are usually required to be confined to English, 
mathematics, foreign language, history, and science. A very few 



122 



colleges only, allow the election of a unit or two from subjects that 
are not included in the traditional academic requirements. 

The variation in the number of units in the various required sub- 
jects and in the number of units allowed for elective subjects is 
due to specific requirements for certain college curriculums. P^or ex- 
ample, the mathematical requirements for Bucknell are listed from 
2 1/2 to 3. This means that an extra half year of mathematics is 
required as a pre-requisite for one of the courses in Bucknell. The 
\ariation appears again in the elective column because the pupil who 
wishes to take the course requiring three units of mathematics for 
preparation would have only four units elective instead of 4 1/2 open 
to a pupil who does not wish to take the course. 

The variation appears considerably larger in some other insti- 
tutions, but the principle applied is the same. 



College 





Required 






Elective 


Total 


lisdi Math. 


F. Lang. 


Hist. 


Science 






2} 


fi 


11 




2 


16 


2} 


4 


11 




4 


16 


21 


4 


1 


1 


3} 


15 


2} 


2 


1 


1 


51 


15 


2 


10 


1 


1 





18 


21-3 


2 


2 


1 


4-41 


15 


3 


2 




1 


6 


15 


2 


5 


1 




4 


15 


4 


3 


1 




4 


15 


21 








9-10 


141 
-15} 


2 


2 


1 


1 


6 


15 


2} 


6 


1 


1 


1 


14} 


3 


2 


1 


1 


41 


14} 


2 


4 


1 


1 


4 


15 


2} 


6-7 


0-1-2 




11-2} 


15 


2}-3 


2-4 


0-2 




31-51-7 


15 


3 


e 




1 


2 


15 


3 


2 




3 


4 


15 


2} 


5 


1 




3 


14} 


2} 


G 


1 




2 


14} 


2i 


4 


1 




4 


141 


3 


6 






3 


15 


21 


3 


1 




51 


15 


2} 


2 


1 


1 


51 


15 


21 


6 


1 


1 


1 


14} 


21-3 


1 3-4 


1 


1 


3 


14} 


4 


2 


1 


1 


31 


1*1 


21 


5 


1 


1 


2 


14} 


3 


2 


1 


3 


2} 


14} 


21 


2 


1 




61 


15 


21 


2 


1 




51 


14 


3* 


2 


1 




41 


1* 


2 


2 


1 




7 


15 


3 


6 


1 




2 


15 


3 


6 


1 




2 


15 


21 


6 






31 


15 


21 


3 




1 


5} 


15 


21 


4 


1 


1 


3} 


15 


21 


4 




1 


41 


15 


3~ 


2 


2 






11 


2 


4 


1 




5 


15 


2-3 





1 


2 


4-5 


15 


3 


7 






2 


15 


4 


5 




1 


2 


15 


21 


4 


1 




4 


14} 


21 


u 


1 


1 


6 


14} 


21 




2 




7 


14} 


2 


5* 


1* 


1* 


3 


15 


2 


4 




1 


5 


15 


! 21 


6 


1 




2} 


15 


21" 


4 


1 


1 


3} 


15 




6 




1 


4 


16 


! 3 


4 




1 


5 


16 


: 2 


3-4 


1 




5-6 


15 


! 31 


2 


1 


1 


41 


15 


1-2 


o-a 


1 


0-1 


8 


15 


! 2 


2 


1 




7 


15 


I 3 




1 




8 


15 


! 1-J 


2 


1 


0-1 


8 


15 



Albright A. B. 4 

B. S. 4 

Allegheny 3 

Beaver 3 

Bryn Mawr 4 

Bucknell 3 

Carnegie ■ — - 3 

Cornell A. B. 3 

B. S. 3 

Dickinson 3 

Drexel 3 

Franklin & Marshall A. B. 3 

B. S. 3 

Geneva 3 

Gettysburg A. B. 3 

B. S. 3 

Grove City A. B. 3 

B. S. 3 

Hamilton — 3 

Haverford A. B. 3 

B. S. 3 

Irving — 3 

Juniata A. B. 3 

Lafayette A. b! 3 

B. S. 3 

Bug. 3 

Lebanon Valley ... A. B. 3 

Lehigh A.' B. 3 

B. S. 3 

Eng. 3 

Lincoln 3 

Marywood A. B. 3 

Mt. Holyoke 3 

Muhlenberg A. B. 3 

B. S. 3 

Oberlin 3 

Pa. Col. for Women 3 

Pa. Military College 2 

Pennsylvania State A. B. 3 

B. S. 3 

Princeton A. B. 3 

B. S. 3 

Smith 3 

Susquehanna 3 

Swiirthmore 3 

Syracuse A. B. 3 

B. S. 3 

Temple A. B. 3 

B. S. 3 

Thiel A. B. 3 

B. S. 3 

University of Penna. College 3 
Sci. School 3 

Wharton 3 
Education 3 

Archlt. 3 
Fine Arts 



123 



College 



English Math. 



Required 
F. Lang. 



Hist. 



Univ. of Pittsburgh College 

Education 
Economics 
Eng. 

Ursinus A. B. 

B. S. 

Vassal' ■ — 

Villanova A. B. 

B. S. 
Eng. 
Washington and Jef- A. B. 

ferson B. S. 

Waynesburg — 

Wellesley — 

Westminster A. B. 

B. S. 
Wilson — 



3 



31 
3 

2 

4 

21 

21 

2 

3 

2 

2 

3 



Elective 


Total 


11 


15 


11 


15 


11 


15 


5 


15 


:; 


14-i 


3 


141 


2 


15 


o 


16 


8 


16 


3 


16 


6 


14} 


7 


141 


8 


15 


2 


15 


3 


15 


4 


15 


4 


15 



*Reconimended. All candidates for the A. 
seven years of foreign language. 



B. degree are required to have a total of 



124 



125 



X I. PKACTTCAL ARTS AND VOCATIONAL EDUCA- 
TION 

Definition. The term, practical arts, is the broad, inclusive term 
that is used to designate a number of phases of instruction that are 
primarily designed to give learners an appreciative knowledge of 
materials, tools, and processes, and of design as it applies to man's 
activities. This term covers such phases of education as manual 
training, industrial arts, household arts, mechanic arts, general home 
economics, general agriculture, and general commercial education. 

1. Industrial arts education. Industrial arts education includes 
that part of practical arts education which pertains to instruction 
based largely upon participation involving tools, materials, and pro- 
cesses significant to present-dav society, and pertaining to the in- 
dustrial field. Industrial arts instruction is essentially general edu- 
cation, and is very desirable because of both its direct and its in- 
direct values. It should be required of all boys in the sixth, seventh, 
and eighth grades wherever circumstances permit, for at least two 
periods per week, and should be offered in high school either as a 
required subject in the industrial arts course or as an elective for 
boys taking such courses as the commercial or the college prepara- 
1ory course. 

Industrial arts instruction usually lias great value for purposes of 
vocational guidance, and it is desirable to precede vocational in- 
dustrial education with industrial arts instruction. While voca- 
tional industrial education and industrial arts education are correla- 
tive aspects of one educative process, they are nevertheless quite dis- 
tinct as to objectives and as to means and methods of instruction. 

Industrial arts education stands for something more than tradi- 
tional manual training. It is the outgrowth of the manual training 
movement, but is broader in its scope. Instead of limiting the in- 
struction to handwork in one material, as for example wood, a de- 
finite effort is made through information about, and use of a number 
of materials of construction to give as broad a knowledge as possible. 
School instruction should furthermore bo amplified by visits to in- 
dustrial establishments. 

A sample program of a high school curriculum in which industrial 
arts instruction as a form of general education is given follows here- 
with : 



First Year 



English 

Health Instruction 

Civics 

General Science 

General math, or Alj 

Woodwork 

Drawing 



12G 

Industrial Arts Curriculum 
Second Year 

Units 

1 English 
Partial Health Instruction 
1 European Hist cry 
1 Geometry 
1 Pattern making 

Sheet metal molding 
I >rawing 

Biology or physical 
science 



Units 


Units 


1st 


2nd 


term 


term 


% 


y 2 


3 artial 


Partial 


% 


y 2 


% 


% 


y 2 






Partial Partial 



tt 



tt 



Third Year 


Units 


Units 


Fourth Year 






1st 


2nd 




Units 




term 


term 






English 


y 2 


y 2 


English 


1 


Health Instruction 


Partial 


Partial 


Health Instruction 


Partial 


U. S. History 


Vz 


y 2 


Problems of Democracy 


1 


Smithing 


y 2 


— 


Phys. and Hygiene 


Partial 


Elem. machine 


— 


y 2 


Machine 


1 


Drawing 


Partial 


Partial 


Drawing 


Partial 


Chemistry or Physics 


y 2 


Vz 


Physics or Chemistry 


1 


Elective 


l 


1 


Commercial and Economic ( 


Jeog. 1 



General agricultural education. There are several types of general 
agricultural education designed for high schools, such u.- instruction 
in technical agriculture, junior project work, and school gardening. 
The purpose of these types of work is primarily cultural, the aim be- 
ing to increase the pupil's knowledge of the arts rather than to give 
actual practice in agriculture. 

Technical agricvMural instruction. Technical agricultural in 
struction includes the stixly of the scientific principles underlying 
farming, as well as the relation of these principles to the production 
of plants and animals of economic value. Certain laboratory experi- 
ments to demonstrate the theory being studied arc performed in 
connection with this type of instruction. 

■Junior project*. Junior project work is designed primarily for 
rural pupils of the seventh and eighth grades. Similar work may be 
carried en in the high school grades. Junior project work includes 
the study of the fundamentals of general agriculture and the appli- 
cation of the knowledge gained through the home project. The pur- 
pose of junior project work is to discover the aptitudes and inapti- 
tudes of the children through supervised home project work. 



127 

School gardening. School garden work is designed primarily for 
urban pupils of the fifth to ninth grades. A limited amount of such 
work may, however, be carried on with the later high school grades. 
School garden work consists of the production of garden crops under 
capable supervision, preceded by a study of soils, seeds, and plants, 
and by a study of their various functions and uses. The purpose of 
such work is to develop a sympathetic understanding of the funda- 
mentals of crop production and to learn to apply this knowledge to 
the beautification of the home and the community, and to the pro- 
duction of vegetables and Rowel's in the home garden. 

General Agricultural Curriculum 

First Year Second Year 



I 'niti 



Units 



English 


1 


English 


1 


Civics 


1 


European History 


1 


General Science 


^ 


Genera] Science 


* 


Health Instruction 


Partial 


General Agriculture 


I 


*General Agriculture 


j 


Health Instruction 


Partial 


General Mathematics 


1 


Elective 


1 


Drawing 


Partial 


Drawing 


Partial 


Music 


Partial 


Music 


Partial 


Th ird Year 




Fourth Year 






Units 




Unit* 


English 


1 


English 


1 


American History 


1 


Problems of Democracy 


1 


Chemistry or Physics 


1 


Health Instruction 


Partial 


Health Instruction 


Partial 


Physics or Chemistry 


1 


Elective 


1 


Elective 


1 



Drawing and Music Optional 



Drawing and Music Optional 



♦Includes home project correlating with subject matter. 

An additional subject can be included in the curriculum if major subjects are 
given four periods per week. 

For details relative to general agricultural education, address the Department of 
Public Instruction. 

Vocational education. The term, vocational education, is used as 
the broad 5 inclusive term which includes four major phases, namely: 

1. Vocational industrial education 

2. Vocational agricultural education 

3. Vocational home economics education 

4. Vocational commercial education 

Full information relative to these various forms of vocational 
education may be obtained from the Vocational Bureau of the De- 
partment of Public Instruction. 

Vocational industrial education — definition. By vocational in- 
dustrial education is meant that form of industrial education which 



128 

aims to tit an individual in some definite degree to pursue effectively 
a recognized trade or occupation. It is given to persons over four- 
teen years of age, and in order to be termed "vocational" the instruc- 
tion must, according to the Federal Education Act, be of less than 
college grade. Such instruction must also meet other Federal and 
State requirements as mentioned under "Conditions of Appro val'\ 

Difference between p re-vocational and vocational industrial edu- 
cation. Vocational industrial education differs from pre-vocational 
education. In pre-vocational education the objective is to give cer- 
tain experiences that assist pupils in finding out what they are best 
titted for by nature, temperament, and native capacity. In voca- 
tional industrial education it is assumed that the learner has def- 
initely selected his trade or vocation. If it found that a learner 
ought to change his trade or vocation the matter should be adjusted. 

Difference between technical and vocational industrial education. 
there is also a difference between industrial education as usually 
given in public technical high schools, and vocational industrial edu- 
cation. Unit trade classes must by Federal Hoard requirements de- 
vote at least fifty per cent of the time given to instruction to shop 
work or practice of the trade that is being learned. This is not 
usually done in technical high schools except where classes are def- 
initely organized in accordance with the requirements set up for 
vocational industrial education. This is not the only reason why 
the usual industrial education that is taught in technical high 
schools does not qualify under the requirements of the Federal Voca- 
tional Education Act. As a rule, the graduates of technical high 
schools are qualified to enter college. Pupils taking vocational in- 
dustrial courses in unit trade classes are prepared to enter trades 
and vocations on a productive basis. They may, if they wish, pre- 
pare for college by taking an additional year of instruction. This 
is done quite frequently. 

Difference between industrial arts education and vocational Indus 
trial education. There is considerable difference between industrial 
arts education and vocational industrial education. One of the 
primary purposes of industrial arts instruction is to give, through 
study and shop experience, an appreciative knowledge of materials, 
tools, and processes, and of design as it relates to important human 
activities. Vocational industrial education, on the other hand, aims 
to make efficient producers in the broad sense of the word. The 
former aims to develop an appreciative knowledge of many kinds 
of industrial activity, the latter to make an efficient producer in 
some single trade or occupation. 

Types of vocational industrial ednc Hon — Day Schools. Cities 
having a population of less than 25. 000 may establish what are 



120 



termed general industrial schools or classes. Instead of limiting 
the trade practice or shop instruction of any learner to a single trade 
as is done in schools organized on the unit trade plan, the general 
industrial school gives instruction to a learner in a group of related 
trades. This gives a more limited experience in any single trade, 
but a wider experience in terms of the number of trades engaged in. 
From the standpoint of developing trade efficiency the general in- 
dustrial school is not as satisfactory as the unit trade school, and 
is essentially a compromise that has been made because cities of less 
than 25,000 population sometimes find it difficult to organize day 
vocational industrial instruction on the unit trade bas's. 

Unit trade courses. Cities having a population of over 25,000 may 
receive reimbursement under the ^mith-Hughes Act for day voca- 
tional industrial education if it is organized on a unit trade basis. 
A unit trade school or class established under the Federal Act is a 
public school or class established and maintained in any community 
for the purpose of fitting persons for useful employment in a par- 
ticular trade or industrial pursuit through instruction of less than 
college grade: (a) designed to meet the needs of persons over four- 
teen years of age; (b) giving not less than half of the time to prac- 
tical work on a useful or productive basis; and (c) extending over 
not less than nine months, (36 weeks) per year, and not less than 
thirty (clock) hours per week. Full compliance with an adopted 
and approved state plan is also required. 

When a group of young men over fourteen years of age not yet 
employed attend an all-day school or class for the purpose of pre- 
paring for entrance into the plumbers' trade, and when the instruc- 
tion given them in both shop and related class work is based solely 
upon the plumbers' trade needs, this constitutes a unit trade school 
or class. 

The following is a suggestive sample course of instruction for a 
three-year unit trade course. Courses may vary greatly in length 
and in kind. It will be noted that thirty clock hours of instruction 
are required per week in the type course shown. Of these fifty per 
cent, or fifteen hours, must be,<levpted to practice of the trade (shop 
instruction). Approximately thirty per cent should be given to 
"related" subjects, and twenty per cent to "non vocational" subjects. 



(Type course. Vocational industrial education, unit trade type) 

Year 1 



Trade 
Practice 

Shop Work 



Total 



Periods 

per week 

(Ji5 min) 

20 



20 

(50%) 



Related 

Mech. Drawing 

Mathematics 

Hygiene 

Total 



Periods 
per week 
(45 min.) 

5 

4 

1 



10 

(25%) 



Non-vocational 

English 

Civics 



Total 



Periods 

per week 

(45 min.) 

5 

5 



10 

(25%) 



L30 



Year 2 



Trade 


Periods 




Periods 




Periods 


Practice 


per week 




per week 




per week 




(-'{5 min ) 


Related 


('f5 min.) 


Non-vocational 


(45 min.) 


Shop Work 


20 


Meeh. Drawing 


5 


English 


5 






Mathematics 


5 


History 


3 






Trade Theory 

Total 


2 


Total 




Total 


20 


12 


8 




(50%) 


Year 


(30%) 
3 




(20%) 


Trade 


Periods 




Periods 




Periods 


Practice 


per week 




per week 




per week 




(45 min-) 


Related 


(45 min.) 


Non-vocational 


(45 min.) 


Shop Work 


20 


Mech. Drawing 


4 


English 


5 






Science 


5' 


Economics or 
Problems of 
Democracy 


2 






Total 




Elective 

Total 


4 


Total 


20 


9 


11 




(50%) 




(22%%) 




(27%%) 



Length of periods. Schools which have standard periods of sixty 
minutes each, as is recommended by the Department, may reduce the 
number of separate periods, provided the proportion of time devoted 
to vocational work is not reduced and provided the minimum hour 
requirements are met. See Bulletin on State Plan for Vocational 
Education. 

It should be understood that out of every clock hour scheduled in 
instruction for which outside preparation is required, a half-hour 
may be devoted to supervised study in the classroom or laboratory 
where such instruction is given, and that it must be supervised by 
the teacher giving such instruction, if such instruction is to be reim- 
bursed out of Smith-Hughes funds. This applies to general industrial 
schools and classes, and unit trade schools and classes. 

Part-time cooperative .school.-: or classes. By part-time cooperative 
industrial education is meant that of vocational industrial education 
that is given in accordance with a plan which provides that the learn- 
ers spend alternate periods of a day, a week, or two weeks in industry 
and in school. Two learners are used for any given position in in- 
dustry. While one of them is attending school his mate is "holding 
down the job". It is common practice for employers to pay part- 
time cooperative employees at the prevailing apprenticeship rate for 
the actual time spent by the latter on productive work in industry. 
By means of such a plan the combined educational resources of in- 
dustry and of the schools may be used for purposes of public edu- 
cation. 

Evening schools and classes. The large majority of industrial 
workers must be reached, if they are to be reached at all, by means of 
appropriate evening instruction that is given either in schools or in 
industrial establishments. In the majority of cases the vocational 



131 

instruction that may best be undertaken by the schools will be in the 
field of related subjects such as trade mathematics, shop sketching, 
blue print reading,, steel square, slide rule, etc., which require little 
equipment and involve but little expense. When shops are available 
for evening instruction they may well be used for vocational classes. 
Smith-Hughes funds are available for trade extension classes such as 
those mentioned. The learners must be at least sixteen years of age, 
and the instruction given must be supplementary to the daily em- 
ployment. 

Synopsis of administrative requirements — surveys or investigations. 
The Department of Public Instruction is authorized and directed by 
law to see that surveys or investigations are made, and to assist 
school districts to this end. (School Code, Article XXXIV, 3407). 

Approval to conduct schools or classes. Written approval is required to conduct 
trade and industrial schools or classes for which Smith-Hughes aid is expected. 

Curriculum. The curriculum must be approved in writing. Significant changes 
in the curriculum must likewise be approved. 

Time requirement: 

a. Unit trade, 1. In cities over 25,000. Time devoted to related and non- 
vocational instruction must not exceed time spent on shop work. Latter 
given for minimum of thirty clock hours for thirty-six weeks per year. 

2. In cities of less than 25,000 requirements same as above 
except that minimum time for shop work is twenty-five 
hours for thirty-six weeks per year. 

b. General industrial. Same as a 2. 

c. Part-time co-operative. Minimum length of school term not less than one 
hundred and forty four hours per year. 



Time distribution. 

Type of 
Instruction 



Per cent to 
Shop Subjects 



Per cent to 
Related Subjects 



Per cent to 

Non-vocational 

subjects 



a. Unit trade 


50 or more 


22% to 30 


20 to 27% 


b. General in- 
dustrial 


50 or more 


22% to 30 


20 to 27% 


c. Part-time 
cooper- 
ative 


50 or more 


to be approved 


by the Dept. 



Productive work. Shop must be on a useful and productive basis. 

Minimum age. Attendance upon unit trade and general industrial classes : 
fourteen years or over. (School Code Art. XXXIV, 3408). For evening trade ex- 
tension classes, sixteen years or over. 

Control. Must be under public supervision and control. 

Location. The location must be approved. 

Equipment. The building and equipment must be approved. 



132 

Size of classes. Minimum attendance of ten. A group of from fifteen to eighteen 
is a desirable number for a class. Classes in shop and related subjects should not 
exceed twenty. 

Qualifications of teachers. Teachers must be properly certified. 

Methods of instruction. Must be approved. 

Reimbursement. Reimbursement is made for the salaries of teachers. School 
districts are eligible for two-thirds of the amount spent for instruction (in accord- 
ance with the requirements of the Department of Public Instruction) during the 
previous school year, but no school district shall receive more than $10,000 for 
vocational education in any one year. (Continuation school funds not included). 

Vocational agricultural education. The purpose of vocational 
agricultural education is to train boys fourteen years of age and over 
for the vocation of farming. Instruction in vocational agriculture 
differs from instruction in general agriculture in that it includes 
both the theory and the practice, while general agricultural instruc- 
tion is informational in character and is designed to increase the in- 
dividual's vocational intelligence rather than his occupational effi- 
ciency. 

Vocational agricultural instruction as offered in Pennsylvania is 
of three types: All-day school, part-time, and evening class instruc- 
tion. By all-day school instruction is meant such instruction in 
vocational agriculture in regular high and vocational schools as is 
offered daily during the entire school year. This type of school is 
especially adapted to young men between the ages of fourteen and 
eighteen. By part-time instruction is meant such instruction as is 
offered to young men who have already taken up the vocation of 
farming. This type of instruction is especially adapted to young 
men between the ages of eighteen and twenty -five. Such instruction 
may be given for from two to four months during the slack season. 
Classes may meet from two to four times each week. By evening- 
class instruction is meant such instruction in vocational agriculture 
as is offered in classes meeting on from two to four evenings weekly, 
during the slack season. Such instruction is especially adapted to 
men who are following farming as a vocation. 

Agricultural Curriculum for Rural Community Vocational Schools and Departments 

of Vocational Agriculture 

First Year 
No. P 
Vocational and related 

subjects (Vz day) 
General Science 
Poultry y 2 yr. Vegetable & 
Ornamental Gardening %yr. 
Farm Shop, including 
Mechanical Drawing 
Project Study 

15 IT 



Vo. Periods 








No. Periods 


weekly 


A 


cademic 


subjects 


weekly 


(J/5 min.) . 








(Jf5 min.) 


3 






English 
Civics 


5 
5 


7 






Health : 
♦Elective 


Instruction 2 
5 


4 










1 











VVA 



Farm Crops 

Animal Husbandry or 

Dairying 
Farm Shop 
Project Study 



Dairying or Animal 

Husbandry 
Fruit Production and 

Forestry 
Farm Shop 
Project Study 



Farm Management and 
Farm Accounts 

Rural Sociology and 
Rural Law 

Farm Mechanics 

Project Study 



Second Year 
5 

5 
4 
1 



English 5 

European History 5 

Health Instruction 2 

*Elective 5 



15 






17 


Third Year 










English 


5 


5 




Chemistry or Physics 


5 






Health Instruction 


2 


5 




*Elective 


5 


4 








1 








15 






17 


Fourth 


Year 










English 


3 


6 




Problems of Democracy 


3 






Health Instruction 


2 


5 




American History 


5 


3 




^Elective 


5 


1 









15 



18 



*Electives may or may not be taken during the first two years. The necessity 
for permitting some pupils to take but two academic subjects yearly, for at least 
the first two years, is apparent. American History may be taken in either third 
or fourth year. 

Schools, which have standard periods of sixty minutes each, as is recommended 
by the Department, may reduce the number of separate periods, provided the 
proportion of time devoted to vocational work is not reduced. 

Note: High schools may offer either a two or a four-year course. The daily 
program of studies shall be arranged so that half the day will be devoted to agri- 
cultural work. The vocational group shall be under the jurisdiction of the teacher 
of agriculture for a full half day. 

Minimum Requirements for State and Federal Aid for 
Vocational Agricultural Education. 

1. Submission of a written application to the State Department of Public 
Instruction. 

2. Approval for the establishment of a rural community vocational school or a 
high school department of vocational agriculture. 

3. At least twelve boys fourteen years of age or over enrolled for instruction 
in vocational agriculture. 

4. Graduate of standard agricultural college, with farm experience and special 
training for teaching vocational agriculture to be employed as teacher on a twelve 
months' basis. 

5. Approved agricultural curriculum. 

6. Necessary equipment. 

a. A well equipped combination laboratory and recitation room. 



134 

b. A well equipped farm shop room. 

c. Reference books on vocational agriculture. 

d. Available bulletins, catalogued. 
7. Approved methods. 

a. Definite plan of work. 

b. One-half of each school day devoted to agricultural instruction consisting 
of recitation, supervised study, field trips, demonstrations and laboratory 
exercises. 

c. Completion of a project by each pupil enrolled for vocational agriculture. 

General Home Economics Education 

Terminology. Many different terms are used in Pennsylvania to 
refer to the field of education that relates directly to the home, and 
there are many different interpertations of these terms. In some 
centers the term domestic science is used to cover the entire field 
of education for the home ; in others it is used to cover that part of 
the field that deals with foods and cookery and the care and mange- 
ment of the home; while in still others it is used to mean only cook- 
ing. Likewise the terms household economics, domestic economy, 
and domestic arts, are used to refer to the whole and to parts of the 
field, and the terms household economy, household arts, home making 
and home economics are used to refer to the entire field. This vary- 
ing use of terms often results in confusion, and it is suggested by 
the home economics syllabus committee, that, since the term home 
economics is the one that has been most broadly accepted through- 
out the country to refer to the whole field of education for the home, 
this term be also adopted for general use in Pennsylvania. The 
term is an inclusive one used to designate both general home econo- 
mics and vocational home economics. 

Definition. The term general home economics is used to designate 
that phase of home economics education which is given to girls and 
women as a part of their general education and which contributes 
to all-around development of the individual girl or woman. 

General home economics instruction. In the education of every 
girl, courses in general home economics should have a prominent 
place because of their importance to her and to others whose wel- 
fare may be directly in her keeping. Every girl lives in a home of 
some kind and should participate to a greater or lesser extent in the 
activities of this home. Courses in general home economics should 
help her to live well in her home and in her community, to become a 
better citizen, and to appreciate the finer things in life. 

Courses in general home economics should be more than courses 
in cooking and sewing. They should include work in foods and 
cookery, clothing and textiles, millinery, laundering, care of the home, 
household accounting, care of children, care of the sick, planning and 



135 

furnishing the home, social life in the home, and many other phases 
of work based upon the activities of the home. 

The. majority of girls who enter wage-earning occupations directly 
from school remain in them for only a few years and then enter upon 
the vocation of home making. The elementary and secondary schools 
offer "the only assured opportunity to prepare for that lifelong oc- 
cupation, and it is during this period that they are most likely to 
form their ideals of life's duties and responsibilities. Work which is 
carefn'ly designed to develop capacity for an interest in the proper 
management and conduct of a home should be regarded as of im- 
portance at least equal to that of any other work. Pupils should 
be led to respond to present duties and, at the same time, their in- 
terest should be aroused in problems of adult life. With present 
duties as a point of departure, home-making education should arouse 
an interest in future home-making activities and with that interest 
as a basis give the training necessary."* 

Groups to be served. In school systems that are organized on the 
8-4 plan, the seventh and eighth grades should be considered as a 
unit. In systems organized on the 6-3-3 plan the seventh, eighth, and 
ninth grades should be considered as a unit. Courses in home econo- 
mics should be made a definite part of the required work for all 
girls in these units above the sixth year. 

The foundation for this work should be laid in the first six grades 
of the elementary school, not in a program of home economics, but in 
a practical arts program. For the great majority of boys and girls 
in the first grades, the elementary school curriculum should include 
a practical arts program which should be the same for boys and girls. 
In this practical arts program there should, of course, be many 
phases of practical work drawn from the fields of food, clothing, 
and shelter, and there should be included many projects, drawn 
from the arts of the household, which boys and girls will elect, and 
which will very definitely play a part in contributing to worthy 
home membership in the families of these hovs and girls. This prac- 
tical arts work should be of such a nature as to meet needs common 
to all bnys and girls. 

In some of the elementarv schools, howeA'er. there may be special 
groups for whom special class work in phases of home economics 
should be planned. If the percentage of dropouts is exceedingly 
high at the end of the sixth grade, then special courses in home 
economics should be planned for the girls in the fifth and sixth grades 

*"Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education" — Bureau of Education, Washing- 
ton. Bulletin No. 35 of 1918. 



136 

of these schools.* If there are over -aged girls or mentally retarded 
girls, they too should have special courses in home economics in the 
fifth and sixth grades organized to meet their specific needs. In 
the high schools, unit-courses and curriculums in home economics 
should be available. 

Courses and curriculums. The work in home economics offered in 
the public schools may vary in extent from single-unit semester 
courses to intensive four-year curriculums. 

In outlining the foundation courses in home economics offered in 
the fifth to the ninth grades inclusive, each year of work should be 
a unit in itself, organized so as to be of specific value to those girls 
who may drop out of school at the end of the year. The work should 
at the same time be so planned that it may form a definite basis for 
the following year of work in home economics. 

The basis for outlining each unit-course of study should be an 
analysis of the home activities of each group of girls enrolled for 
the course. This analysis will undoubtedly repeal the fact that the 
girls participate in many of the activities of the home. Therefore, 
if a course of study is to serve in meeting the immediate and pres- 
ent-day needs of the girls enrolled, it must be more than a course 
in sewing or a course in cooking. One of the purposes of general 
home economics instruction should he to help girls do better those 
things which they of necessity must do in the performance of home 
duties. This means that the content of the course of study should 
be chosen from the entire field of home economics for each unit-year 
of work offered, and that it should be of such a nature each succeed- 
ing year as to be of greater helpfulness to each girl in interpreting 
and in meeting her daily needs and responsibilities in home, school, 
and community. 

In the high school, unit-semester and unit-year courses should be 
available to all girls who desire to elect home economics and who 
are enrolled in academic, commercial, general, or in other curricul- 
ums. The content of each course of study should be carefully de- 
signed to meet the needs of each specific group of girls. For ex- 
ample, the girls in a commercial curriculum upon graduation expect 
to enter a commercial pursuit. They may desire to elect a unit- 
semester course in clothing which is planned to meet their specific 
clothing needs when they become business women. The work should 
be such as to help them in securing the information which they need 
about economic values of clothing; to help them in developing an 
appreciation of good materials, of good design, of good color combi- 
nations, of the appropriateness of various kinds of clothing to vari- 
ous kinds of occasions, and of good taste in business dress. It should 

*The syllabus for the seventh and eighth grades will be practicable for such 
exceptional schools. 



137 

develop high standards aud should enable them to select and pur- 
chase their clothing economically and intelligently. Short units 
of such nature and character as to meet the needs of other specific 
groups of girls in the high school should be offered. 

Some of the high schools of the State desire to offer technical 
three-year and four-year curriculums in general home economics. 
Since there must be a common core of required subjects in all cur- 
riculums, the following has been set up as a basis for organizing 
all curriculums in general home economics: 



First Year 


Units 


Second Year 


Unit, 


English 

Civic3 

General Mathematics** 

Health Instruction 


1 

1 

1 

Partial 


English 

European History 

General Science** (if not given 

first year) 
Health Instruction 


1 

1 

the 

1 

Partial 


Third Year 




Fourth Year 




English 

Chemistry 

Health Instruction 


1 

1 

Partial 


English 

Problems of Democarcy 
American History 
Health Instruction 


1 

% 

y 2 

Partial 



Out of a total of sixteen units of work required for graduation, 
from a four-year high school, a minimum of four units must be in 
the field of general home economics if it is to be classed as a general 
home economics curriculum. These four units may be distributed 
throughout the four years or may be concentrated in two or three 
\ears. The maximum number of units that may be in the field of 
general home economics is six. In addition to completing the nine 
academic subjects listed in the core curriculum, and the minimum 
or maximum number of units of work in home economics, there will 
be additional 1 academic courses that must be elected. 

Three-year home economics curriculums following a junior high 
school course should include a minimum of three units of home 
economics work. The core curriculum given above for second, third, 
and fourth years would apply to such courses. 

Reference should be made to the lists of elective courses given on 
page 30 when selecting these courses. 

Since there are many different ways of arranging the home econ- 
omics courses in a curriculum ; a number of suggestive arrangements 
have been set up and may be obtained upon application to the De- 
partment of Public Instruction. 

•*The place of general science and general mathmatics may be interchanged. 



138 
Vocational Home Economics Education 

Definition,. Vocational home economics is that form of vocational 
education which has for its controlling purpose the fitting of girls 
and women for efficient service and for useful and profitable em- 
ployment in the occupations and in the management of the home. 

Types of schools and classes. Vocational home economics is offered 
in three types of schools and classes — all-day, part-time, and evening. 

Instruction in vocational home economics may be offered daily 
throughout the school year to girls who desire this type of instruction 
while they are still in attendance in secondary schools. 

Courses in vocational home economics may also be offered on a 
part-time basis. Girls who are gainfully employed and are enrolled 
in general continuation schools may devote a part of their school 
time to courses in home enconomics. Girls and women who have left 
school may return for courses of instruction in vocational home 
economics on a part-time basis. 

To the large numbers of girls and women who are following in- 
dustrial, commercial, and professional pursuits, there may be offered 
in evening schools and classes short unit courses designed to fit 
these individuals either to .take up the vocation of home-making or 
to pursue it more effectively if they have already entered upon this 
vocation. 

Minimum Requirements for State and Federal Aid. 

1. Approval to conduct schools or classes. Written approval from the Depart- 
ment of Public Instuction is required in order that a school district may conduct 
vocational home economics schools or classes under the State and Federal Voca- 
tional Education Acts. 

2. Supervision and control. The law provides that in order to receive State 
and Federal aid, all schools and classes of vocational home economics must be under 
public supervision and control and must be designed to fit for useful employment 
in some phase of home economics work. 

3. Aye of pupils. The minimum age requirement of pupils in day schools, as 
written into the Federal Vocational Education Act, is. fourteen years, The factors 
which should determine entrance to the course are the maturity of the girl and her 
desire for vocational training in home-cooking. 

The minimum age requirement for entrance into evening schools and classes is 
sixteen years. 

4. Time allotment. 

(a) For day schools. The school year must consist of at least nine months. 

The total hours of instruction (academic and vocational) per week in cities 

over 25,000 will be thirty 60-minute hours — six hours per day. In cities of 

less than 25,000 the hours of instruction per week may be twenty-five 60-minute 

hours-hours per day. 

In a six-hour school day, one half the day, or 180 minutes, must be devoted to 

practical subjects, or to practical and related subjects. This makes a weekly total 

of 900 minutes. In a five-hour day, one-half the day, or 150 minutes, must be 

devoted to practical subjects, or to practical and related subjects. This makes a 

weekly total of 750 minutes. 



139 

As stated above, the vocational half-day may be devoted entirely to practical 
work, or to a combination of practical and related work. In case the latter is 
desired, the proportion between these two phases of work may be met as follows : 



School Day 
6 Hour 



Total Proportion of 

Vocational Practical and 
Time Related Subjects 



180 Min. Daily 



practical 120 Min. maximum 



related 



00 



§ Hour 



900 



150 



750 



Weekly 

Daily 

Weekly 



practical 600 
related 300 

practical 90 
related 00 

practical 450 
related 300 



maximum 

maximum 
maximum 

maximum 
maximum 

maximum 
maximum 



(b) For part-time schools and classes. The length of course for part-time 
home economics schools and classes must not be less than 144 hours of class- 
room instruction per year. The minimum number of hours per week is four, 
of which at least one-half of the time, or two hours, must be devoted to home 
economics. The remaining time may be devoted to related or general education 
subjects. 

(c) For evening schools and classes. Courses in vocational home economics 
in evening schools and classes are to be organized in short units. The length 
of the units should be determined entirely by the needs of the pupils enrolled 
in these courses. 

5. Segregation. Pupils taking vocational work are to be segregated for the 
practical and related subjects that make up the vocational half-day. It is recom- 
mended that they take their academic work with the regular academic classes. 

6. Plant and equipment. The plant and equipment necessary for a comprehen- 
sive course in home-making in day schools are the following : 

(a) A clothing laboratory and fitting space 

(b) A foods laboratory 

(c) A dining room 

(d) A unit (or family) kitchen is desirable. 

(e) Adequate provision should be made for teaching home nursing, 
house care, laundering, and the other phases of home-making work 
that are to be given. This may be done by providing appropriate 
rooms, including a bath room, in the school building or in nearby 
homes. For the course in laundering the equipment may be 
placed in one end of the clothing laboratory or the foods laboratory 
if either room can adequately accommodate the work. 



The plant and equipment for part-time and for evening schools and classes 
must be sufficient for the line of work undertaken. 

7. Qualification and certification of teachers. All teachers of vocational home 
economics must hold vocational certificates issued by the Department of Public In- 
struction entitling them to give instruction in this field of work. 



1 40 

8. Reimbursement. Reimbursement from State and Federal funds, made avail- 
able through the State and the Federal Vocational Education Acts, will be made to 
school districts which operate approved departments of vocational home economics 
in accordance with the requirements as herein set forth. The amount of reim- 
bursement is two-thirds of the salaries of supervisors and teachers of vocational 
home economics, subject to the general provisions stated in page 131. 

9. Curriculums and courses. Work in vocational home economics vaying in ex- 
tent from one to four years is being offered in the secondary schools of the State. 

Since there must be a common core of required subjects in all-day curricul- 
ums, the following has been set up as a basis for organizing all curriculums in 
vocational home economics : 



First Year 


Units 


Second Year 


Units 


English 

Civics 

Health Instruction 


1 
1 

Partial 


English 

European History 
Health Instruction 


1 

1 

Partial 


Third Year 




Fourth Year 




English 

Chemistry 

Health Instruction 


1 

1 

Partial 


English 

Problems of Democracy 
American History 
Health Instruction 


y 2 
l 

Partial 



A minimum of two academic subjects and health instruction is 
required in the academic half-day of each and every one of the four 
years of the curriculum in which vocational work is offered. When 
pupils demonstrate their ability to carry more than two academic 
subjects they may do so. 

The courses of study in part-time schools and classes should con- 
sist of such practical and technical work in home economics as will 
be adapted to the groups of pupils enrolled for the work. They 
should be such as to increase the vocational competency of the pupils 
and should also contribute to their general education. 

The content of the unit courses in home-making offered in evening- 
schools and classes should be determined entirely by the needs of 
the individual pupils enrolled in each course. 

There is a wide range of adaptations that may be made in arrang- 
ing the courses in home economics to meet the needs of specific 
groups to be served. A number of typical and suggestive curri- 
culums in vocational home economics for day schools, and lists of 
unit courses in home-making for part-time and evening schools may 
be obtained upon application to the Department of Public Instruc- 
tion. 

Each course and curriculum in vocational home economics must 
be approved by the Department of Public Instruction if State and 
Federal aid are to be granted to school districts in which such work 
is offered. 



141 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Briggs, Thomas H. — "The Junior High School." United States 
Bureau of Education, Beport of the Commissioner, 1914, 1 : 135-57. 

Brown, Elmer E lsworth — "The Making of Our Middle Schools." 
New York: Longmans, 1903. 

Colvin, S. S. — "Introduction to High School ITeaching." New York: 
McMillan 1918. 

Counts, George Sylvester — "Selective Character of American Sec- 
ondary Education", University of Chicago Press, 1922. 

Cubberly, Ellwood P. — "History of Public Education in the United 
States", Houghton Mifflin Company. 

Hall-Quest, Alfred L.— "Supervised Study." New York: The Mac- 
millan Company, 1916. 

Inglis, Alexander — "Principles of Secondary Education." Boston: 
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1918. 

Johnston, Charles Hughes — "High School Education." New York: 
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

Johnston, Charles Hughes — "The Modern High School." New York: 
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1916. 

Johnston, C. H. ; Newlon, J. H., & Pickell, F. G. — "Junior — Senior 
High School Administration." New York: Chas. Scribner's 
Sons, 1922. 

Judd, Charles H. — "Introduction to the Scientific Study of Educa- 
tion." New York: Ginn and Company, 1918. 

Koos, Leonard V. — ' The Junior High School." New York: Harcourt, 
Brace Co., 1920. 

Lewis, W. D. — "Democracy's High School." Boston: Houghton 
Mifflin Company, 1914. 

Monroe, Paul (editor) — "Principles of Secondary Education." New 
York: The Macmillan Company, 1914. 

Obrien, F. P. — '"High School Failures." Teachers College, Columbia 
Univ., 1919. 

Parker, S. 0.— "Methods of Teaching in High Schools." New York: 

Ginn and Company, 1915. 
Richardson, M. W. — "Making a High School Program", World Book 

Company, Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. 
Bobbins, Charles 1/ — "The Socialized Recitation", Allyn and Bacon.- 
Snedden, David — "Problems of Secondary Education," New York, 

Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1917. 
Van Denburg, Joseph King — "The Junior High School Idea", Henry 

Holt and Company. 



142 

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1918, No. 35, Cardinal Principles of Secondary 

Education, 5 cts. 3 cts. 

1917, No. 51, Moral Values in Secondary Educa- 

tion, 5 4 

1918, No. 19, Vocational Guidance in Secodary 

Education, 5 3 

1915, No. 23, The Teaching of Community Civics 10 5 

1916, No. 28, The Social Studies in Secondary 

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1917, No. 2, Reorganization of English in 

Secondary Schools, 20 15 

1917, No. 49, Music in Secondary Schools 5 4 

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